Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 17.djvu/713

Rh FRANCE.] N U M I S M A TICS 655 princes had found it convenient to continue the Oriental gold money of the country, part of the great currency at that time of all the western Moslems, and Roger II. also struck Latin coins of his own as DVX AFVLIAE, the first ducats. Frederick II., continuing the Arab coinage, also struck his own Roman gold money, solidi and half solidi, with his bust as emperor of the Romans, Caesar Augustus, and on the reverse the imperial eagle. But the calami ties which overwhelmed the Swabian house and threw back the Renaissance deprived this effort of any weight, and it was left to the great republics to carry out the idea of a worthy coinage, a necessity of their large commercial schemes. The famous gold florin was first issued in 1252. The obverse type is the standing figure of St John the Baptist, the reverse bears the lily of Florence. The weight was about 54 grains, but the breadth of the coin and the beauty of the work gave it dignity. The commercial greatness of Florence and the purity of the florin caused the issue of similar coins in almost all parts of Europe. Venice was not long in striking (in 1280) a gold coin of the same weight as the florin, but with the types of a standing figure of Christ, and the doge receiving the gonfalon at the hands of St Mark. It was first called the ducat, the name it always bears in its inscription ; later it is known as the zecchino or sequin. Though not so largely imitated as the florin, the extreme purity of the sequin was unquestioned to a time within the memory of living persons. Genoa likewise had a great gold currency, and the other Italian states struck in this metal. It is significant of the power of the Italian republics that the later Mameluke sultans of Egypt found it convenient or necessary for their position between Europe and India to adopt the weight of the florin and sequin for their gold money. Many varieties of gold money appear in course of time in France, England, and to a less extent in other countries. The need for a heavier silver coinage caused the issue of the large denier (grossus denarius), afterwards called the gros and groat. This coin appears in the 14th century, and at the same time the large German bracteates are issued. The types are now very various and distinctly worthy of the art of the time, which as yet is purely decorative and conventional, so that portraits are not possible. The religious intention also is gradu ally giving way to the desire to produce a beautiful result, and the symbol of the cross is varied to suit the decorative needs of the coin. Heraldic subjects also appear, and in the shield, which is frequently a reverse type, we see the origin of the usual modern reverse of the most important coins. Of classi- 4, 5. With the classical Renaissance we find ourselves in the cal Re- presence of modern ideas. The elaborate systems of coinage of the naiss- various states of Europe are soon to begin, and the prevalence of a ance, and general currency to become for the time impossible. Silver money modern, now gains new importance with the issue of the thaler or dollar in Germany, in 1515. This great coin speedily became the chief Euro pean piece in its metal, but as it was coined of various weights and varying purity it failed to acquire the general character of the denier. The style of this age is at first excellent. The medals gave the tone to the coinage. Art had wholly thrown off the rules of the age before and attained the faculty of portraiture and the power of simply representing objects of nature and art. Great masters now executed medals and even coins, but speedily this work became a mere matter of commerce, and by the beginning of the modern period it was fast falling into the poverty and barbarism in which it has ever since remained. The details of the numismatics of these two periods belong to the notices of the money of the several countries. Money of A word must be added on money of account. While the denier account, was the chief and practically the sole coin, the solidus passed from use as a foreign piece into a money of account. The solidus was the German schilling (shilling), which contained usually 12 deniers. As there were 20 shillings to the pound of silver, we obtain the reckoning by s. d., libra, solidi, and denarii. The pound as a weight contained 12 ounces, and its two -thirds was the German mark of 8 ounces. Art. It would be interesting, did space permit, to notice fully the art of this entire class, to examine its growth, and to trace its decline, but, as with that of Greek and Roman coins, we must mainly Emit ourselves to the best period. This is a space of about a hundred and fifty years, the age of the classical Renaissance, from the middle of the 15th century to the close of the 16th. The finest works are limited to the first half century of this period, from a little before 1450 to about 1500, in Italy, and for as long a time, beginning and ending somewhat later, in Germany. The artists were then greater than afterwards, and medal-making had not degenerated into a trade ; but with the larger production of the period following the work was more mechanical, and so fell into the hands of inferior men. The medals of this first period may not unworthily be placed by the side of its sculpture and its painting. Not only have some of its medallists taken honourable places in a list where there was no room for ignoble names, but to design medals was not thought an unworthy occupation for the most famous artists. There are, as we should expect, two principal schools, the Italian and the German. The former attained a higher excellence, as possessing not merely a finer style but one especially adapted to coins or medals. The object which the artists strove to attain was to present a portrait or to commemorate an action in the best manner possible, without losing sight of the fitness of the designs to the form and use of the piece on which they were to be placed. For the successful attain ment of this purpose the style of the later pre - Raphaelites was eminently suited. Its general love of truth, symmetrical group ing, hard drapery, and severely faithful portraiture were qualities especially fitted to produce a fine portrait and a good medal. It is to be noted that their idea of portraiture did not depend on such a feeling for beauty as influenced the Greeks. Rather did it set before it the moral attainments and capabilities of the subject. The German art, a product of engravers in metal, is really goldsmith s work, except in Albert Diirer s case. Thus it is not so suitable to numismatic designs. The portraits of the German coins and medals are sometimes even more characteristic than those of the Italian, and the groups often show great vigour ; but both are less appropriate. They display also too great a profusion of detail, by which the effect of the boldness of the outlines is frequently lost ; yet they have much originality and vigour, and will reward an attentive study. Both these schools, but especially the Italian, afford the best foundation for a truly excellent modern medallic art. The finest coins and medals of Italy and Germany have an object similar to that which it is sought to fulfil in the English, and their nearness in time makes many details entirely appropriate. Thus, without blindly imitating them, modern artists may derive from them the greatest aid. There are some delicately beautiful Italian medals of the 16th century, too closely imitated from the Roman style. A vigorous realistic school, the only great one of modern times, arose in France before the close of the 16th century and lasted into the next. It was rendered illustrious by Dupre and the inferior but still power ful Warin. From this age until the time of Napoleon there is nothing worthy of note. The style of his medallists is the weak classical manner then in vogue, but yet is superior to what went before and what has followed. It is not intended here to enter in any detail into the various divisions of the subject already treated in its main outlines. The questions that would require consideration are of too complicated and technical a nature to be illustrated within reasonable limits ; the principal matters of inquiry may, however, be indicated. The money of the Iberian Peninsula begins with the Yisigothic Portu- series, which consists of gold pieces. The money of Portugal is gal. regal, and not of great interest except as affording indications of the wealth and commercial activity of the state in the early part of the 18th century. The coinage of Spa-in is almost without excep- Spain, tion regal, but a more curious class than that of Portugal. The coins of the early contemporary kingdoms, such as those of Aragon, and of Castile and Leon, are especially worthy of examination. We may mention as of a very peculiar character a large gold piece in the coinage of the latter state, called the Dobla de la Vanda, from its bearing the shield of the famous order of knighthood of the Vanda or Band. Of this there are examples assigned to John I. (1379-90) and John II. (1406-54). The money of the sole monarchy is less worthy of notice. The city of Barcelona is represented by coins bearing the names of various kings. The medals of Spain are not important. The coinage of France forms a large series. It begins with the France. money of the Merovingian djmasty. This consists almost wholly of gold pieces, imitated from those of the late Roman and Byzan tine rulers, as already mentioned, the commonest denomination being the tremissis, or third part of the sou d or (solidus). The coins are rare, and bear either the names of a king and a city or of a moneyer and a city. They are barbarous in their art. Under the princes of the Carlovingian dynasty the principal coins are deniers, and after a time oboles also, gold money being extremely rare. They bear the name of the king and that of the city where they were struck, and have a more original character than the earlier pieces, although they are still barbarous. The money of the Capetian house begins with coins like those of the line preceding it. By degrees the coinage improves. In the 13th century gold pieces were issued. There are several denominations of these and of silver coins, but to some different names are applied for various types with the same weight, as the denier Parisis of Paris, and the denier Tournois of Tours, both of base metal. At the time of Philip VI. the coins are fine. The modern coinage may be con sidered to begin under Henry II., whose portrait is of good work. During this period there is no very remarkable feature in the current money, except the occurrence in the 17th century of the pieces of the sort termed pied fort, which we must regard as a kind of pattern. The seignorial coins of France during the Middle Ages are important. The medals are far more interesting than the modern coins. Their interest begins in the age of the last Valois kings and Henry IV. ; there is a long and historically important series of Louis XIV., and another of a new artistic character under the first republic and the reign of Napoleon I. Almost every great event, from the beginning of the power of that emperor until his