Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 17.djvu/327

Rh N E C N E E 313 he burnt most of his political papers. He died at Coppet in April 1804. The chief authorities for Necker s life are La Vie privee de M. Neckcr, by Madame de Stael-Holstein, and the Notice sur la vie de M. Neckcr, by Auguste de Stael-Holstein, his grandson, published in the collection of his works edited by the latter in 1833. The bibliography of his works is as follows: Heponse au Memoire de M. T Abbe Morellct, 1769 ; Eloge de J. B. Colbert, 1773; Essai sur la legislation et le commerce dcs grains, 1775 ; Compte rendu au Roi, 1781 ; De V administration dcs finances de la France, 3 vols., 1784; Memoire en reponse au discours prononce par M. de Calonnc, 1787 ; De I importance des opinions rcligieuses, 1788; Sur V administration dc M. Neckcr, par lui-meme, 1791 ; Du pouvoir executif dans les grands etats, 2 vols., 1792 ; Reflexions sur le proces de Louis XVI., 1792 ; De la Revolution Franqaisc, several editions, the last in 4 vols., 1797; Cours de la morale rcliyieusc, 1800; Dcrniercs mies dc politique ct de finance, 1802; Manuscrits de M. Neckcr, published by his daughter, 1804 ; Suites funestes d une sculefaute, published after his death. Lc Salon de Madame Neckcr, by the Vicomte d Haussonville, 2 vols., 1882, compiled from the papers at Coppet, should also be consulted. (H. M. S.) NECROSIS. This word, which has the same meaning as mortification, is now restricted in surgical works to death of bone. It is sometimes used to signify the part which dies ; it may, however, with more propriety signify the process, ending in the death of the bone. A severe inflammation, caused by a severe blow, by cold, or by the absorption of various poisons, as mercury and phosphorus, is the general precursor of necrosis. The dead part, analogous to the slough in the soft tissues, is called a sequestrum or exfoliation. At first it is firmly attached to the living bone around ; gradually, however, the dead portion is separated from the living tissue. The process of separation is a slow one. New bone is formed around the sequestrum, which often renders its removal difficult. As a rule the surgeon waits until the dead part is loose, and then cuts down through the new case and removes the sequestrum. The cavity in which it lay gradually closes, and a useful limb is the result. NECTAR AND AMBROSIA are the nourishment of the gods in Homer and in Greek literature generally. The gods resemble men in all respects except that they have different food and drink. Usage varies much as to the exact meaning of the two terms. Probably they were not originally distinguished ; but usually both in Homer and in later writers nectar is the drink and ambrosia the food. On the other hand in Alcman nectar is the food, and in Sappho and Anaxandrides ambrosia the drink. Each is used in Homer as an unguent (nectar, //. xix. 30 ; ambrosia, II. xiv. 170). Both are fragrant, and may be used as perfume. The derivation of the word nectar is un certain ; probably v^yareos is a kindred word. Ambrosia is derived from a/z/Sporo?, immortal. NECTARINE, a fruit differing from the peach in having a smooth or glabrous skin instead of a downy one. The varieties of nectarine, too, have often a distinct flavour from that of the peaches. The common origin of the peach and nectarine is shown, however, by the facts that seeds of the one will often reproduce the other, and that fruits of both kinds have not unfrequently been met with on the same branch. For cultivation see HORTICULTURE, vol. xii. p. 272. NEEDLE. The sewing needle is an implement which has been in use from prehistoric times in all places where mankind used the skins of animals or woven fabrics for clothing. Originally the needle was made of fish-bone, bone, or ivory, and its first form was probably a rude eyeless bodkin. Needles of bone continue to this day to be used by uncivilized tribes ; but since the time of the discovery of bronze metal needles have been in use in civilized communities. It is on record that needles of steel were made at Nuremberg towards the end of the 14th century, and at a later period Spanish needles acquired wide celebrity. For upwards of two centuries the manu facture has been established in England, Redditch in Worcestershire, with several other small towns in Warwick shire, being the centre of the industry, first planted there by Germans. Originally the trade was domestic in its character, but now it is carried on in large manufactories where mechanical appliances have to a certain extent supplanted handiwork, with much advantage to the health and the wellbeing of the operatives. The raw material of the manufacture consists of steel wire of fine quality and suitable gauge. The wire is sup plied in coils of definite weight and diameter, and the first operation consists in cutting the coil with powerful shears. With the aid of a gauge the coil is cut with precision into lengths, each sufficient for two needles. These lengths, having the curvature of the coil and other inequalities, are next straightened. For this purpose a bundle con taining several thousand lengths is packed within two- strong iron rings; the bundle is heated to red heat, and then pressed on an iron plate having two parallel grooves in which the iron rings run. Over this plate the bundle is worked backward and forward by the pressure of an oblong slightly curved iron tool having two longitudinal slits through which the edges of the rings project. Thus by combined pressure and rolling the whole of the lengths quickly become perfectly straight and even. The next operation consists in pointing both ends of the wires, which, being done on a dry grindstone revolving at high speed, is, from the sparks and dust created, very injurious to the operatives. A grinder, holding at one time several dozen wires against the stone with his left hand, and revolving them slightly with his right, will point about 100,000 needles in a day. He is but imperfectly protected against the deadly dust he produces by a cowl which, partly covering the grindstone, is connected with a pipe through which a strong current of air is drawn, sucking away a large proportion of the dust. For the operation of pointing various machines have been devised and have come into extensive use, especially in Germany. In general principle these machines consist of a wheel, to the periphery of which the wires to be pointed are held by an india-rubber band. It revolves at right angles to the revolving hollow grindstone, and, bringing each wire in rapid succession at the proper angle for grinding against the stone, it points three times as many as a skilful grinder. The succeeding series of operations have for their object the eyeing of the needles. As a preliminary to this the oxidized scale at the centre of the wire is ground off, and on the surface so prepared each wire is separately stamped, by means of dies, with the grooved and rounded impres sion of two needle heads set end to end. Through these stamped heads the eye-holes are next perforated by means of a screw-press working a pair of fine steel punches or prongs. Each wire now forms two needles attached head to head by a broad thin scarf of steel at the point of junc tion where the metal has been stamped for the head. These double needles, taken to the number of about one hundred, are threaded together with a fine wire passed through the eyes, giving the whole the appearance of a fine close-set comb. Each side is clamped up tightly, and the expansion of the scarf in the centre is removed by a file. The spitted row is now ready to break over into separate- needles, and as the point of junction of the two sets of heads is weakened by the stamping process, the rows readily break at that point by bending. These heads are then smoothed and rounded with the file before the clamp is removed, the wire withdrawn, and the separate needles set free. At this stage the needles are hardened and tempered in the usual manner ; that is, they are placed in an iron tray, heated to redness in a muffle furnace, plunged XVII. 40