Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 16.djvu/158

Rh 148 ascending currents will continue their ascent till a height is attained at which the pressure of the air composing the currents equals or just falls short of the pressure over the surrounding regions at that high level. On reaching this height the air, no longer buoyed up by a greater specific levity than that of the surrounding air, will cease to ascend, and expanding horizontally will thenceforth flow over as an upper current towards those regions which offer the least resistance to its course ; that is to say, it will flow over upon those regions where, at that height, pressure happens at the time to be least. Now from the known densities of air of different temperatures and humidities it is evident that the overflow of the upper current will take place towards and over that region or regions the air of which in the lower strata of the atmosphere happens to be colder and drier than that of the other surrounding regions, because, being denser, a greater mass of air is condensed or gathered together in the lower strata of the atmosphere, thus leaving a less mass of air, or a diminished pressure, in the higher region of the upper current. If this be so, then the extraordinarily high pressure of Central Asia during winter is to be ascribed to these two causes : (1) the low temperature and excessive dry ness of the air of this extensive region ; and (2) its relative proximity to the low pressure of the Atlantic to the north west, the low pressure of the Pacific to the north-east, and the low pressure of the belt of calms to the south. Similarly, since in summer the temperature of air resting over the Atlantic between Africa and the United States is much lower than that of the land, the ascending currents which arise from the heated lands of Africa, Europe, and North and South America, as well as from the region of calms immediately to the south, all of which are remark able for a low normal pressure, will on reaching the upper regions of the atmosphere flow towards this part of the Atlantic, because there, the temperature being lower and the density of the air composing the lower strata being greater, pressure in the upper regions is less. And, since the surface winds are constantly flowing outwards from this region of abnormally high pressure, thus draining away the air poured down upon it by the upper currents which converge upon it, extreme saturation does not take place, and the air consequently is relatively dry and cool. That this view generally represents the movements of the upper currents has been strongly confirmed within the last few years by Professor Hildebrandsson and Clement Ley in their researches into the upper currents of the atmosphere based on observations of the cirrus cloud. From these considerations it may be concluded that the winds which prevail near the earth s surface are known from the isobaric lines, the direction of the wind being from regions where pressure is high towards regions where it is low, in accordance with Buys Ballot s law ; and that the upper currents may be inferred from the isobaric lines taken reversely, together with the isothermal lines taken directly. In other words, the regions of lowest pressure, with their ascending currents and relatively higher pressure at great heights as compared with surrounding regions, point out the sources or fountains from which the upper currents flow ; and the isothermals, by showing where on account of the relatively low temperatures the greater mass of the air is condensed in the lower strata of the atmosphere and sea-level pressure consequently is high, thus diminishing the pressure of the upper regions, point out the regions towards and upon which these upper currents of the atmosphere flow. The facts of the diurnal oscillations of the barometer in the different regions already discussed afford the strongest corroboration of these views. The term &quot; monsoon &quot; has long been applied to the pre- [PKEVAILING WINDS. vailing winds in southern Asia which blow approximately from S.W. from April to October, and from N.E. from November to April. The term is now, however, generally applied to those winds connected with continents which are of seasonal occurrence, or which occur regularly with the periodical return of the season. Since they are caused immediately by the different temperatures and pressures which form marked features of the climates of continents in winter and summer respectively, they are most fully developed round the coast of Asia, owing to the great extent of that continent. The monsoons of different parts of the coasts of Asia differ widely in direction from each other. Thus in winter and summer respectively they are W.N.W. and E.N.E. at the mouth of the Amur, N. and S.S.E. at Shanghai, N.E. and S.W. at Rangoon, N. and W.S.W. at Bombay, N.W. and S.W. at Jerusalem, and S.S.W. and N.N.E. at Archangel. The Indian winter monsoon generally begins to break up in March, but it is not till about the middle of May, when the normal pres sure has been decidedly diminished over the heated interior, that the summer monsoon acquires its full strength and the heavy monsoonal rains fairly set in. In October, when the temperature has fallen considerably and with the falling temperature the pressure of the interior has risen, the summer monsoon begins to break up, and this season is marked by variable winds, calms, and destructive hurricanes. As the temperature continues to fall and pressure to rise, the winter monsoon again resumes its sway. Monsoons, equally with the trade-winds, play a most important part in the economy of the globe. The relatively great force and steadiness in the direction in which they blow, and the periodical change in their direc tion, give facility of intercourse between different countries ; and, besides, by the rainfall they bring they spread fertility over extensive regions which otherwise would be barren wastes. The winds of Australia are also strictly monsoonal, but owing to the small extent of that continent, and conse quently the smaller differences there are between the normal pressure of the interior and that of the surrounding coasts in summer and winter respectively, they are less strongly marked than are the monsoons of southern Asia ; and particularly they neither blow with the same force nor so steadily from the same point of the compass. For the same reason the Australian climates are characterized by the occurrence of more frequent droughts than are the climates of southern Asia, and the same remark applies to the climates of southern Africa. Since the Malay archipelago lies during the summer of the northern hemisphere between the high pressure of central Australia and the low pressure of Asia, and during the winter between the high pressure of Asia and the low pressure of central Australia, it follows that the winds of these islands are eminently monsoonal in their character, being in summer southerly and in winter northerly. The result of this peculiar wind system of the archipelago is to give to these islands a singular diversity of climates, which will be more particularly referred to under rainfall. At Zanzibar the prevailing wind in July is S.E., but in January, when the low pressure of the interior is situated much farther to southward, it is N.E. : and the same influence is felt, though in a greatly modified degree, as far as Mauritius, where the S.E. trade changes nearly into E. during the summer. On the other side of Africa the S.E. trade of the South Atlantic is changed into a S.W. monsoon on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. In the southern, central, western, and northern regions of North America the prevailing winds have a well-marked monsoonal character. The prevailing winds of winter and summer respectively are N.E. and S.S.E. at New Orleans,