Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 15.djvu/304

Rh 286 M A H M A H picturesquely situated close to the river mouth. The population in 1871 was 8492. It contains a Roman Catholic chapel, a school, and a British post-office ; and a long wooden bridge maintained by the British Government gives access to the British territory beyond the river. MAHI KANTHA, THE, a group of native states forming a political agency under the Government of Bombay, India, lying between 23 14 and 24 28 N. lat. and 72 40 and 74 5 E. long.; with an area of about 4000 square miles, and an estimated population of 447,056. It is bounded on the N.E. by the Rajput states of Udaipur and Dunyarpur, on the S.E. by Rewa Kantha, on the S. by Kaira district, and on the W. by the native states of Baroda and the Palanpur agency. The Mahi Kantha territory is divided among a number of chiefs, of whom the raja of Edar is by far the most important. In May 1877 these chiefs were classified in seven divisions, according to their importance and the extent of their jurisdiction. There are two states of the second class, three of the third, nine of the fourth, nine of the fifth, fourteen of the sixth, and fourteen of the seventh class. The entire revenues amount to about 110,000. MAHMtTD OF GHAZNI (971-1030), known also as Mahmiid, son of Subuktigin, was born October 2, 971. His fame rests chiefly on his successful wars, in particular his numerous invasions of India. His military capacity, inherited from his father, Nasir-ud-din Subuktigin, was strengthened by youthful experience in the field. Subuk tigin, a Turki slave of Alptigin, governor of Khorasan under Abd ul Malik Nuh, king of the Samani dynasty of Bokhara, early brought himself to notice. He was raised to high office in the state by Alptigin s successor, Abu Ishak, and in 366 A.H. (977 A.D.), by the choice of the nobles of Ghazni, he became their ruler. He soon began to make conquests in the neighbouring countries, and in these wars he was accompanied by his young son Mahmud. On one occasion, when Mahmud was fourteen years of age, his advice with respect to a military operation in the hills was approved and adopted by the generals. Before he had reached even this age he encountered in two expedi tions under his father the Indian forces of Jaipal, raja of Lahore, whom Subuktigin defeated on the Punjab frontier. In 994 Mahmud was made governor of Khorasan, with the title of Saif-ed-daulah (&quot; Sword of the State&quot;), by the Samani emir, Abd ul Malik Nuh. Two years later, his father Subuktigin died in the neighbourhood of Balkh, having declared his second son, Ismail, who was then with him, to be his successor. As soon as Ismail had assumed the sovereignty at Balkh, Mahmud, who was at Nishapur, addressed him in friendly terms, proposing a division of the territories held by their father at his death. Ismail rejected the proposal, and was immediately attacked by Mahmud and defeated. Retreating to Ghazni, he there yielded, and was imprisoned, and Mahmud obtained undis puted power as sovereign of Khorasan and Ghazni (997). The Ghaznavi dynasty is sometimes reckoned by native historians to commence with Subuktigin s conquest of Bust and Kusdar (978). But Subuktigin, throughout his reign at Ghazni, continued to acknowledge the Samani suzerainty, as did Mahmud also, until the time, soon after succeeding to his father s dominions, when he received from the caliph of Baghdad, Al Kadir Billah, a khilat or robe of honour, with a letter recognizing his sovereignty, and conferring on him the titles Yamin-ed-daulah (&quot; Right Hand of the State &quot;), and Amin-ul-Millat (&quot; Guardian of the Faith &quot;). From this time it is the name of the caliph that is inscribed on Mahmiid s coins, together with his own new titles. 1 Previously the name of the 1 Even before succeeding his father he struck coins in his own name at Xisabur (Nishapur), when he was governor of Khonlsdn. Samani sovereign, Mansur bin Nuh (successor of Abd ul Malik) is given along with his own former title, Saif-ed- daulah Mahmud. The earliest of those of the new form gives his name Mahmud bin Subuktigin. Thereafter hig father s name does not appear on his coins, but it is inscribed again on his tomb. The new honours received from the caliph gave fresh impulse to Mahmud s zeal on behalf of Islam, and he resolved on an annual expedition against the idolaters of India. He could not quite carry out this intention, but a great part of his reign was occupied with his Indian campaigns. In 1000 A.D. he started on the first of these expeditions, but it does not appear that on this occasion he went farther than the hill country near Peshawar. The hostile attitude of Khalaf ibn Ahmad, governor of Sistan, called Mahmud to that province for a short time. He was appeased by Khalaf s speedy submission, together with the gift of a large sum of money, and further, it is said, by his subdued opponent addressing him as sultan, a title new at that time, and by which Mahmud continued to be called, though he did not formally adopt it, or stamp it on his coins. Four years later Khalaf, incurring Mahmud s dis pleasure again, was imprisoned, and his property con fiscated. Mahmud s army first crossed the Indus in 1001, opposed by Jaipal, raja of Lahore. Jaipal was defeated, and Mahmud, after his return from this expedition, is said to have taken the distinctive appellation of Ghdzi (&quot;Valiant for the Faith &quot;), but he is rarely so called. 2 On the next occasion (1005) Mahmud advanced as far as Bhera on the Jhelum, when his adversary Anang-pal, son and successor of Jaipal, fled to Kashmir. The following year saw Mahmud at Multan. When he was in the Punjab at this time, he heard of the invasion of Khorasan by Ilak Khan, ruler of Transoxiana (whose daughter Mahmud had married). After a rapid march back from India, Mahmud repelled the invaders. Ilak Khan, having retreated across the Oxus, returned with reinforcements, and took up a position a few miles from Balkh, where he was signally defeated by Mahmud. Two years had elapsed since his last visit to India when Mahmiid again entered the Punjab (1008), this time for the express purpose of chastising S6wah Pal, who, having become a Mussulman, and been left by Mahmud in charge of Multan, had relapsed to Hinduism. The Indian campaign of the following year (1009) was a notable one. Near the Indus Mahmud was opposed again by Anang-pal, supported by powerful rajas from other parts of India. After a severe fight, Anang-pal s elephants were so terror-struck by the fire-missiles flung amongst them by the invaders that they turned and fled, the whole army retreating in confusion and leaving Mahmiid master of the field. 3 Mahmtid, after this victory, pushed on through the Punjab to Nagar-k6t (Kangra), and carried off much spoil from the Hindu temples] to enrich his treasury at Ghazni. In 1011 Mahmiid, after a short campaign against the Afghans under Mohammed ibn Siir in the hill country of Ghor, marched again into the Punjab. The next time (1014) he advanced to Thanesar, another noted stronghold 2 The emperor Babar gives him this title (1526). He himself was the second Mohammedan king who had conquered India, the first being Sultan Mahmiid Ghazi. 3 The terms in which native historians have described the effects of these missiles not unlike the account given by De Joinville of the Greek fire which caused such consternation to the army of St Louis something more than two centuries later gave rise at one time to the idea that something like modem artillery was meant. The fact that naphtha is distinctly mentioned as having been used by Mahmiid on a later occasion, and the knowledge that petroleum is found at several places on both sides of the Indus near the scene of the fight with Anang-pal, furnish the most probable explanation.