Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 14.djvu/887

 L N L N 857 English editions. In the knowledge of Roman law Long stood by himself amongst English scholars, and his well-known articles on that subject were, the first valuable contribution to the study from any English writer. He had also a profound knowledge of ancient geography. He was an excellent French, German, and Italian scholar, and also read Spanish. His extensive and accurate learning may be explained from the combination of a tenacious memory with a clear judicial intellect. His character was as ele vated as his intellect. Its simplicity and manly independence may be seen partly in his writings. His faculty for discriminating evidence and his strong common sense appear in everything that he wrote. (H. J. M.) LONG BRANCH, a fashionable seaside resort of the United States, in Ocean township, Monmouth county, New Jersey. The old village lies about a mile inland, but the watering-place proper is for the most part situated on the bluffs and plateau immediately above the beach. The bathing-grounds are excellent ; there are fine drives along the beach in the vicinity ; upwards of twenty thou sand visitors can find accommodation in the hotels alone, of which there are no less than thirty-three ; and there are besides hundreds of private residences occupied mainly by the wealthier classes from New York and Philadelphia. Since 1874 it can be reached directly from New York both by railway and by steamers. Long Branch has a corporation of seven commissioners. Its permanent popu lation in 1880 was 3833, in 1882 about 5000. LONGEVITY is a term that may be applied to express either the length or duration of life of any organism, or the prolongation of life to an advanced age. The first meaning is the more scientific of the two, as it may be applied to the duration of the life of any organism, although that duration may be relatively short ; thus, we may contrast the longevity of the mould which lives only a few hours with that of the forest tree which has survived for centuries, or the longevity of the ephemeral insect with that of an eagle or a swan, whose lives may be prolonged to over a century. On the other hand, the second meaning is the more common, as when an instance of very advanced age is spoken of as an example of great longevity. The information we possess as to the natural duration of life of the lower forms of plants and animals is very meagre, and it can scarcely be asserted that in all there is a natural period of [life. A simple organism composed of cells, or even one more complicated but still having the organs necessary to life constructed upon a simple type, may continue to Iiv3 and grow so long as external conditions are favourable. There may be no tendency to decay of tissue inherent in the organism, so that life may be prolonged until a change in external conditions, quickly or slowly, so affects the processes of nutrition as to make the continuance of life impossible beyond a certain time. It is also highly probable that in both the animal and vegetable worlds comparatively few individuals are permitted to live undisturbed for a sufficient length of time to allow any inherent tendencies to decay to show themselves. In the struggle for existence few individuals even reach maturity ; at an early period they are used to support the lives of other and perhaps stronger organisms. Excluding the lower forms of plants, as to the duration of whose lives we know nothing, the higher plants may be classed, according to duration of life, as follows : annuals, or semi-annuals, which grow up in spring and die in autumn ; biennials, which die at the end of the second year ; and perennials, the duration of which may last from four to thousands of years. Succulent plants have a short life, lasting only one or two years ; the formation of wood is necessary for prolonged vegetable existence. It has been pointed out that strongly scented plants have often a longer duration of life than those destitute of smell. Thus thyme, mint, hyssop, marjoram, sage, &c., can live for two years or longer; whilst lettuce, wheat, oats, barley, live no more than a year. Trees of rapid growth, such as fir, birch, horse-chestnut, form soft wood, and have a comparatively short life ; whilst hard-wood trees, such as the oak, grow slowly and live long. It is not, however, an invariable rule that trees yielding hard wood live longest. The beech, cypress, juniper, walnut, and pear all form hard wood, but they do not live so long as the lime, which forms a softer wood. Trees which are long in producing leaves and fruit, and which also retain these for a long time, live longer than those in which these changes occur quickly. Fruit- bearing trees, producing a sour harsh fruit in the wild state, have longer lives than those bearing sweet fruits in the cultivated state, By skilful pruning, or lopping off the branches and buds, the term of life of even short-lived plants may be lengthened. According to Hufeland, the chance any plant has of attaining a great age depends on the following conditions : (1) it must grow slowly ; (2) it must propagate slowly and late in life ; (3) it must have a certain degree of solidity and hardness in its organs, a sufficiency of wood, and the sap must not be too watery ; (4) it must be large and have a considerable extent of surface ; and (5) it must rise into the atmosphere. If we view a tree as consisting of an enormous number of buds clustered on a common stem in which the vessels or channels for the circulation of the sap remain pervious, and in which also new wood is formed annually, there seems to be no limit to age, provided external conditions are favourable. Many large trees have reached a vast age, as shown by the following table compiled by De Candolle : Years. Kim (limns campestris) 335 Cypress (Cttpressiif sempervirent).. 350 Cheirosfemon pfatanoides 400 Ivy (Iledera Helix) 450 Larch (Larix europxa) 576 Chestnut (Castanea vesca) 000 Orange (Citrus Aurantium) 630 Palms (Cerorylon and Cocof)... 1-00-700 Olive (O ea europxa) 700 Years. Oriental plane (Piatanus orientalis) 720 Cedar (Cedrus Libaiii) 800 Lime (Tilia europxa) 1076-1147 Oak (Quercus Robur) ... S10, 10SO, 1500 Yew (faxus baecalu) } 2588,2880 Taxodium distiehum 3000-4000 Baobob (Adansonia diyilata) 5000 In the animal kingdom there is great variety as regards the duration of life, but no accurate data have yet been collected. Certain Infusoria have been watched during the whole period of their existence, which has not lasted more than forty-eight hours; on the other hand, Actinix, or sea anemones, may live to a long age, as shown by the case of a specimen of Actinia mesembryanthemum, still alive in Edinburgh, which belonged to Sir John Dalyell, and which must be at least about seventy years of age. It is highly probable that cold-blooded animals, such as fishes, frogs, toads, in which tissue-changes go on with extreme slowness, especially during a period of muscular inactivity, may live for many years. In the imperial fish-ponds of ancient Rome lampreys were said to have attained their sixtieth year ; pike and carp have been ascertained to live a hundred and fifty years ; tortoises have reached the age of one hundred years ; and it is alleged by natives of India that the crocodile may live for at least a hundred years, and that there seems to be no limit to its time of growth. Many birds have a long period of life. Eagles and crows have been known to live a hundred years, and parrots have been kept in confinement for sixty years. Peacocks attain an age of twenty years ; barn-door fowls live for a much shorter period, from six to twelve years. Small birds seem to have shorter lives than large ones. Blackbirds, gold finches, and canaries have been known to live for twenty years ; but many of the smaller birds attain an age of only five or six years. Amongst mammals, the elephant is supposed to attain the greatest age, reaching above a hundred years ; the camel generally lives to fifty years, and may live to eighty ; the horse does not live more than forty years ; the deer, thirty years ; the ox, fifteen to twenty years ; sheep, goats, XIV. 1 08