Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 13.djvu/802

 768 J U K J U L JUKES, JOSEPH BEETE (1811-1869), geologist, was born near Birmingham, October 10, 1811. Educated first at Wolverhampton grammar-school and afterwards at King Edward s School, Birmingham, he passed in 1830 to St John s College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1836. At Cambridge he began the study of geology under Sedgwick, and in 1839, after three years of study, lecturing, and writing, he was appointed geological surveyor of Newfoundland. He returned to England at the end of 1840, and in April 1842 sailed as naturalist on board H.M.S. &quot; Fly,&quot; despatched to survey Torres Strait, New Guinea, and the east coast of Australia. Jukes landed in England again in June 1846, and in August received an appointment to the geological survey of Great Britain. The district to which he was sent was North Wales. In 1850 he accepted the post of local director of the geological survey of Ireland. The exhausting nature of his work slowly but surely wore out even his robust constitution, and on July 29, 1869, he died. Immediately on leaving college, Jukes became a member of the London Geologi cal Society, and in 1852 he was admitted to the Dublin Geological Society, of which he was president in 1853 and 1854. He was also a Fellow of the Koyal Society. For many years he lectured as professor of geology, first at the Royal Dublin Society s Museum of Irish Industry, and afterwards at the Royal College of Science in Dublin. In addition to the reports of his various appointments, Jukes wrote very many papers and memoirs, to be found in the London and Dublin geological journals and other periodicals. While in Ireland he edited, and in great measure wrote, forty-two memoirs explanatory of the maps of the south, east, and west of Ireland, and prepared a geological map of Ireland on a scale of 8 miles to an inch. He was also the author of Excursions in and about New foundland, 2 vols., 1842; Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of H.M.S. &quot;Fly,&quot; 2 vols., 1847; A Sketch of the Physical Structure of Australia, 1848 ; Popular Physical Geology, 1853 ; On the Geology of Australia, 1853 ; Students Manual of Geology, 1857 (later editions, 1862, 1872) ; the article GEOLOGY, in the 8th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1858 ; and School Manual of Geology, 1863. See Letters, &c. , of J. Becte Jukes, edited, with connecting memorial notes, by his sister (C. A. Browne), 1871, to which is added a chronological list of Jukes s writings. JULIAN (331-363), commonly called Julian the Apos tate, was Roman emperor for about a year and eight months (361-363). His full name was Flavius Claudius Julianus. He was born at Constantinople in 331, being the son of Julius Constantius and his wife Basilina, and nephew of Constantino the Great. He was thus a mem ber of the dynasty under whose auspices Christianity became the established religion of Rome. Julian lost his mother not many months after he was born. He was only six when his imperial uncle Constan- tine died ; and one of his earliest memories must have been the fearful massacre of his father and kinsfolk, in the interest and more or less at the instigation of the sons of Constantine. Only Julian and his elder brother Gallus were spared, as they were too young to excite the fear or justify the cruelty of the murderers. From this period till his twenty-fifth year Julian passed his life in the closest retirement, jealously watched by the reigning emperor, often under immediate fear of death. He was carefully educated, however, under the supervision of the family eunuch Mardonius, and of Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, at Constantinople itself and at various places in Ionia and Bithynia, and afterwards for six years at Macellum, a remote and lonely castle in Cappadocia. He was trained to the profession of the Christian religion ; but he became early attracted to the old faith, or rather to the idealized amalgam of paganism and philosophy which was current among his teachers, the rhetoricians. Cut off from all sympathy with the reigning belief by the terrible fate of his family, and with no prospect of a public career, he turned with all the eagerness of an enthusiastic temperament to the literary and philosophic studies of the time. The old Hellenic world had an irresistible attraction for him. Love for its culture was in Julian s mind intimately associated with loyalty to its religion. In the meantime the course of events had left as sole autocrat of the Roman empire his cousin Constantius, who felt himself unequal to the enormous task, and called Julian s brother Gallus to a share of power. The same turn of affairs brought a great improvement in the condition of Julian, who was permitted to pursue his studies at Nicomedia. Here he made the acquaintance of some of the most eminent rhetoricians of the time, and here it was that he became confirmed in his secret devotion to the pagan faith. But the downfall of Gallus (354) yet again exposed Julian to the greatest danger. By his rash and headstrong conduct Gallus had incurred the. enmity of Constantius and the eunuchs, his confidential ministers, and was put to death. Julian fell under a like suspicion, and narrowly escaped the same fate, For some months he was confined at Milan, till at the intercession of the empress Eusebia, who always had a kindness for him, he was permitted to retire to Athens (355). The few months he spent here were probably the happiest of his life. Living at the ancient hearth of Grecian culture, and amid the companionship of congenial friends, he found his dearest ambition realized in the enthusiastic study of literature and philosophy. But a member of the Roman imperial house could not thus be allowed to escape the public responsibilities con nected with his birth. The emperor Constantius and he were now the sole surviving male members of the family of Constantine ; and, as the emperor again felt himself oppressed by the cares of government, there was no alter native but to call Julian to his assistance. At the instance of the empress he was summoned to Milan ; and there from Constantius, who had been chiefly concerned in the murder of his family, he received the hand of Helena, sister of the emperor, as also the title of Cassar and the government of Gaul. It was with extreme reluctance that Julian entered on his new dignities. Accustomed to a life of quiet study and retirement, he felt timid and awkward in the world of ceremony, suspicion, and intrigue to which he was now introduced, He knew well the danger to which he was exposed from the dark temper of the emperor and the arts of the eunuchs who were all-powerful at the court. A task of extreme difficulty also awaited him beyond the Alps. During recent troubles the Alemanni and other German tribes had crossed the Rhine ; they had burned Cologne, Treves, Strasburg, and many other flourishing cities, and extended their ravages far into the interior of Gaul. The internal government of the province had also fallen into great confusion. In spite of his inexperience, and by virtue of his native energy and ability, Julian quickly brought affairs into order. He completely over threw the Alemanni in the great battle of Strasburg (357). The Frankish tribes which had settled on the western bank of the lower Rhine were reduced to submission. Five times in all he crossed the river to overawe the restless tribes beyond. In Gaul he rebuilt the cities which had been laid waste, re-established the administration on a just and secure footing, and as far as possible lightened the taxes, which weighed so heavily on the poor provincials. Paris was the usual residence of Julian during his govern ment of Gaul, and his name has become inseparably associated with the early history of the city. The position and reputation of Julian were now estab lished. He was general of a victorious army enthusiasti cally attached to him, and governor of a province which he had saved from ruin ; but he had also become an object of fear and jealousy at the imperial court. It was accordingly