Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 13.djvu/788

 754 J S J U of the Transylvanian prince Bethlen Gabor, 1864. Many of Josika s novels have been translated into German, the earlier ones by Klein, Schwarz, Steinacker, and Kovacs, and the later by J6sika s second wife Julia, herself an authoress of considerable merit. See K. Mcenich and S. Vutkovich, Magyar Irdk Nevtdra, Buda pest, 1876 ; M. Jokai, &quot; Josika Miklos Emlekezete,&quot; A Kisfaludy- Tdrsasdg Evlapjai, Uj folyam, vol. iii., Test, 1869; G. W. Stein- acker, Ungarische Lyrikcr, Leipsic, 1874. Cf. also Josika s autobiography Emlekirat, Pest, 1865, vol. iv. JOSQUIN. See DEPKES, JOSQUIN, vol. vii. p. 101, musical composer, ordinarily designated by the name Josquin. JOST, ISAAK MABKUS (1793-1860), historical writer, was born on February 22, 1793, at Bernburg, and studied at the gymnasium of Wolfenbiittel, whence he passed successively to the universities of Gottingen and Berlin. In Berlin he taught a school from 1826 till 1835, when hs received the appointment of upper master in the Jewish commercial school (called the Philanthropin) at Frankfort- on-the-Main. Here he remained until his death, 20th November 1860. The work by which he is chiefly known is a Geschichte der Israeliten, in 9 vols. (Berlin, 1820- 29), which was afterwards supplemented by Neuere Geschichte der Israeliten von 1815-45 (Berlin, 1846-47), and Geschichte des Judenthums 11. seiner SeJcten (Leipsic, 1857-59). He also published an abridgment of the Geschichte under the title Allgemeine Geschichte des judischen Yolks (1831-32), and an edition of the Mishna with a German translation and notes (in 6 vols., 1832- 34). The Israelitische Annalen were edited by him from 1839 to 1841, and he contributed extensively on pedagogic and historical subjects to scientific journals. JOUFFROY, THEODORE-SIMON (1796-1842), a French philosopher, was born at Pontets, near Mouthe, department of Doubs, 1796. In his tenth year, his father, who was a taxgatherer, sent him to an uncle at Pontarlier, under whom he commenced his classical studies. At Dijon his composi tions attracted the attention of an inspector who had him placed (1814) in the Normal School, Paris. He there came under the influence of Cousin, and in 1817 he was appointed assistant professor of philosophy at the Normal and Bourbon schools. Three years later, being thrown upon his own resources, he began a course of lectures in&quot; his own house, and formed literary connexions with Le Courrier Franqais, Le Globe, UEncydopedie Moderne, and La Revue Euro- peenne. The variety of his pursuits at this time carried him over the whole field of ancient and modern literature. But he was chiefly attracted to the philosophical system represented by Reid and Stewart. The application of &quot; common sense &quot; to the problem of substance supplied a more satisfactory analytic for him than the scepticism of Hume which reached him through a study of Kant. He thus threw in his lot with the Scotch philosophy, and his first dissertations are, in their leading position, adaptations from The Inquiry. His tendency towards eclecticism makes his philosophical position undefinable, but his limpid style and capacity for generalizing historical movement; are as distinct in his earlier as in his later works. In 1826 he wrote a preface to a translation of the Moral Philosophy of Stewart, demonstrating the possibility of a scientific statement of the laws of consciousness ; in 1828 he began a translation of the works of Reid, and in his preface esti mated the influence of Scotch criticism upon philosophy, giving a biographical account of the movement from Hutcheson onwards. In the same year he assisted Milon in ancient philosophy at the Faculty of Letters, and, while carrying on a course upon recent philosophy, he returned to the Normal School in 1830. Next year he was returned to parliament by the arrondissement of Pontarlier ; but the work of legislation was ill-suited to his powers. Swift&amp;gt; practical decisions on questions demanding immediate settlement were repugnant to his habits of mind. He tried to introduce a reform in the manner of considering petitions, his sole suggestion of any weight during he years of his representation ; though he frequently spoke, lie never gained any real influence. Yet he attended to liis parliamentary duties conscientiously, and ultimately broke his health in their discharge. In 1833 he was appointed professor of Greek and Roman philosophy at the college of France and a member of the Academy of Sciences ; he then published the Melanges Philosophiques, a collection of fugitive papers in criticism and philosophy and history. In them is foreshadowed all that he after wards worked out in metaphysics, psychology, ethics, and resthetics. He had already demonstrated in his prefaces the possibility of a psychology apart from physiology, of the science of the phenomena of consciousness distinct from the perceptions of sense. He now classified the menial faculties, premising that they must not be confounded with capacities or properties of mind. They were, according to his analysis, personal will, primitive instincts, voluntary movement, natural and artificial signs, sensibility and the faculties of intellect ; on this analytic he founded his scheme of the universe. In 1835 he published a Cours de Droit Naturel, which, for precision of statement and logical coherence, is the most important of his works. Starting from the conception of a universal order in the universe, he reasons from it to a Supreme Being, who has created it and who has conferred upon every man in harmony with it the aim of his existence, leading to his highest good. As to the nature of good and evil, how is it to be judged ? The good, he says, is the fulfilment of man s destiny, the evil the thwarting of it. Every man being organized in a particular way has, of necessity, an aim, the fulfilment of which is good ; and he has faculties for accomplishing it, directed by reason. The aim is only good, however, when reason guides it for the benefit of the majority, but that is not absolute good. When reason rises to the conception of universal order, when actions are sub mitted, by the exercise of a sympathy working necessarily and intuitively, to the idea of the universal order, the good has been reached, the true good, good in itself, absolute good. But he does not follow his idea into the details of human duty, though he passes in review fatalism, mysticism, pantheism, scepticism, egotism, sentimentalism, and rationalism. In 1835 his health failed and he went to Italy, where he continued to translate the Scotch philo sophers. On his return he became librarian to the uni versity, and took the chair of recent philosophy at the Faculty of Letters. He died in Paris, 4th February 1842. After his death were published Nouveaux Melanges Philo- sophiques and Cours d Esthetique. The former contributed nothing new to the system except a more emphatic statement of the distinction between psychology and physiology. The latter formulated his theory of beauty. The beautiful, by his analysis, is that which aesthetically pleases, without con sideration of interest. Utility being defined as the satis faction of human wants, the beautiful may be useless. Order and proportion he takes to be the components of beauty, an order and proportion not leading to the useful, but giving pleasure without consideration of the end. Unity and variety are the conditions of beauty ; it demands their coexistence, the former for the satisfaction of sensibility, the latter of intelligence. Jouffroy s claim to distinction rests upon his ability as an expositor of other men s ideas. He founded no system ; he contributed nothing of importance to philosophical science ; he initiated nothing which has survived him. But his enthusiasm for mental science, and his command over the language of popular expo-