Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 13.djvu/608

 580 JAPAN [GEOGRAPHY. kug class, received certain allowances from the Government. It is probable that only the wealthier nobles found any hardship entailed upon them by this arrangement, for, if we take into consideration the payments that had to be made by a daimiQ under the old regime in the way of dues to the shGgun and allowances to retainers, &c., it cannot be doubted that the lower grades of the former territorial chieftains are in many cases better oil at present than they were before the revolution. Their old retainers, too, received from the Government curtain fixed incomes, or pensions, calculated upon their former rates of pay, and thus became direct depend ants of the nation instead of one particular han. In 1876, however, these allowances to both kuazoku and sliizoku alike were commuted, according to an elaborate scheme drawn up by the finance department. Government bonds for a total commutation sum were given to each person, to be paid off yearly, by lot, to a certain amount, and bearing in the meantime interest varying from 5 to 7 per cent., due every half year. In course of time, therefore, the Government will be entirely relieved from its heavy responsi bility in this respect. Amongst other reforms, the wearing of swords by the samurai was also, about this time, prohibited by public edict. This, as might have been foreseen, occasioned con siderable dissatisfaction for a while, especially in the southern pro vinces of Satsuma and Tosa ; but, as it had been wisely prepared for, some time before, by a notification making the carrying of these weapons optional, large numbers of the military class had already discarded them ere the second notice was issued, and the task was thus rendered far more easy of accomplishment. An exception was, however, made in the case of officers and men of the newly-organ ized army and navy. These two branches of the public service are now on a fixed system, formed on the model of those adopted by Western nations ; and large numbers of foreign instructors have been from time to time employed by the Japanese Government. Numerous departments or bureaus now exist for the direction of public affairs, the principal being those for home affairs, finance, public works, foreign affairs, war, admiralty, education, justice, and police. Many of these are subdivided into several sections, varying considerably in number according to circumstances. The whole constitution is avowedly modelled after the Western systems. There does not as yet exist any house of parliament, but already the seeds have been sown from which it may rise at some future day. A chief council, termed the gcnroinor &quot;senate,&quot; exists, and throughout the whole country are found numerous &quot; assemblies,&quot; the members of which are elected by vote. These assemblies, however, do not possess any share in the administra tion ; their functions are as a rule very limited, and the subjects discussed by them are chiefly matters relating to roads, drainage, bridges, and other local affairs of but minor importance. The local prefects also meet at intervals to discuss various points of local interest. There are not wanting indications that the establishment of a parliament, like that of England, would be wel comed with joy by a very large proportion of the people. The press is under the supervision of the Government officials in each district, and many restrictions are imposed upon any excess of freedom of speech in the newspapers. The editors have in many instances been subjected to fine or imprisonment for having permitted the publication of certain articles that proved distasteful to the Government. The press laws under which these punishments were awarded were issued in 1875. Popula- Population. The number of inhabitants in Japan was tioa. until lately very uncertain. To the ordinary traveller it would seem to be very dense, as the roadways are lined with villages ; but in the wilder regions the population is widely scattered, and indeed in certain localities not a single dwelling-house is to be seen for miles together. Dr Kaempfer s ideas on the subject may be taken as rather exaggerated, for it must be remembered that they were derived merely from that portion of the country traversed by him in his journeys from Nagasaki to Yedo. As he visited on his route the large city of Ozaka, and as he then passed along the Tokaido the most populous and fre quented of all the roads throughout the whole empire it is easy to understand that his theory as to the enormous population was based upon a very deceptive impression. The total has been generally asserted by the Japanese themselves to be about 30,000,000, the authority being a census made so far back as in 1804. A return compiled in 1875, however, put the exact total at 33,997,449 ; and the still later census of 1880 gave it as 34,338,404, of whom 17,419,785 were males, and 16,918,619 females. The population of the city of Tokio is variously stated, but is probably not much over 800,000. According to a com putation made in the year 1870, Kioto had then about 370,000 inhabitants. Next in importance after these two cities comes Ozaka, with a population of 414.000 souls. After Ozaka may be mentioned Nagoya, the chief town of the province of Owari, followed closely by Hiroshima in Akt, Saga in Hizen, Kagoshima in Satsuma, Kanazawa in Kaga, and Himeji in Harima, most of which are said to possess over 100,000 inhabitants. Fukui in Echizen and Gifu in Mino rank in the second class. Of the ports open to foreign trade, Ozaka being excluded, Nagasaki is said to have the largest population, being very slightly in excess of Yokohama ; Hakodate and Niigata have perhaps about 30,000 each. The foreign communities are very small : they may be numbered at a few hundreds at Yokohama, Tokio, Kobe&quot;, and Nagasaki, while at Ozaka, Hakodate, and Niigata the European residents may be reckoned by tens. 1 National Wealth. Although possessed of considerable X mineral wealth, Japan cannot be called a rich country. w The early foreign residents, from the time the treaties were made in 1858 and following years, were perhaps over-sanguine in their expectations. Recent commercial returns show that the balance of trade has been against Japan, her exports being considerably in arrear of the imports. 2 Up to the present time this deficiency has been chiefly supplied by an export of bullion, paper money being issued in large quantities for use in the country itself. The value of the notes now in circulation is very great, and it is hard to say how or when they can be redeemed. The notes issued at the time of the revolution of 1868 bore an endorsement to the effect that they were to be redeemed within thirteen years ; but, instead of this, they have been replaced by another issue, without any such endorsement. In 1879-80 the Japanese paper currency fell to a discount of above 50 per cent, as compared with the silver Mexican dollar in use amongst the foreign merchants. Public Works. In spite of these financial difficulties, I the Japanese have made great advances in public works. ^ In the number of its lighthouses Japan may compare favourably with many a Western nation. Though all have been erected by foreign engineers during the past ten or twelve years, there is hardly a promontory or island lying in the direct track of the shipping but is possessed of a lighthouse. Many of the lights are very powerful ; but in localities of less importance, or lying off the track of foreign vessels, smaller junk lights are used. Buoys and beacons of various sizes have been moored in many places. The whole system is under the superintendence of a special Government bureau (the lighthouse department), which despatches steamers at stated periods to make the tour of the coast and convey stores and provisions to the different posts. At the more important lighthouses foreign lightkeepers are employed, but in many instances the service is performed by natives alone. The rocky and dangerous character of the Japanese coasts makes this system one of peculiar utility. As already mentioned, good progress is being made in railway construction. Numerous lines of telegraph have been erected throughout the country, not only between the treaty ports but also in the interior, particularly to the garrison towns and local Government offices. The mint at 6zaka has been working since the year 1871. At Yokosuka, on the western shore of the Bay of Yedo, are a dockyard and arsenal, superintended by French engineers ; these 1 According to an official report published in 1880 there are in Japan 108 towns with 10,000 inhabitants and upwards. 2 The consular trade reports for the open ports in Japan, published yearly in the blue books, afford minute information on all subjects connected with commerce between Japan and other nations.