Page:Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition, v. 1.djvu/524

Rh 486 AI EXANDER OF APHRODISIAS, the most celebrated of the Greek commentators on the writings of Aristotle, and styled, by way of pre-eminence, 6 e^y^r^s, the xposi- tor. He was a native of Aphrodisias in Caria, and taught the Peripatetic philosophy at Athens in the end of the 2d and the beginning of tho 3d centuries of the Christian era. Commentaries by Alexander on the following works of Aristotle are still extant: The Analytica Priora, I.; the Topica; the Meteor ologica; the DeSensu; and the Metaphysica, I.-V, together with an abridgment of what he wrote on the remaining books of the Metaphysica. His commentaries were greatly esteemed among the Arabians, who translated many of them. There are also several original writings by Alexander still extant. The most important of these are a work On Fate, in which he argues against the Stoic doctrine of necessity; and one On the Soul, in which he contends that the undeveloped reason in man is material (voCs ^At/cos), and inseparable from the body. He identified the active intellect (voCs Troir/TtKos), through whose agency the potential intellect in man becomes actual, with God. Several of Alexander s works were published in the Aldine edition of Aristotle, Venice, 1495-98; his De Fato and De Anima were printed along with the works of The- rm stius at Venice, 1534; the former work, which has been translated into Latin by Grotius and also by Schulthess, was edited by Orelli, Zurich, 1824; and his commentaries on the Metaphysica by Bonitz, Berlin, 1847. Nourisson has treated of his doctrine of fate, Paris, 1870. ALEXANDER OF HALES (ALEXANDER HALENSIS), sur- named Doctor Trrefragabilis and f ons Vitce, a celebrated English theologian of the 1 3th century. Born in Gloucester shire, and trained in the monastery of Hales, from which he takes his name, he was early raised to an archdeaconry. Relinquishing this position, however, he went, like most of the scholars of his day, to study at the university of Paris, where he took the degree of doctor, and became cele brated as a teacher of philosophy and theology. Among his pupils was Bonaventura; but it is evident from a comparison of dates that he did not teach Duns Scotus and Thomas Aquinas, as has been frequently asserted. In 1222, when at the height of his fame, Alexander entered the order of Minorite Friars, and thenceforward lived in strict seclusion. He refused, however, to renounce his degree of doctor, and was the first of his order who con tinued to bear that title after initiation. He died in 1245, and was buried in the convent of the Cordeliers at Paris, where he had spent the last twenty-three years of his life. The most celebrated work of Alexander was his Summa Theologian (Nuremberg, 1452; Venice, 1576), undertaken by the orders of Pope Innocent IV., and approved by Alexander IV., after he had submitted it to the examina tion of seventy learned theologians as a system of instruc tion for all the schools in Christendom. Based on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, it is divided into four parts; the first treating of the nature and attributes of the Deity; the second of the creation and of the various orders of creatures ; the third of the scheme of redemption, the incarnation of Christ, the law, and grace ; and the fourth of the sacraments. The form is that of question and answer, and the method is rigidly scholastic. ALEXANDER OF TRALLES (ALEXANDER TRALLIANUS), a medical writer, was a native of Tralles, a city of Lydia, and lived probably about the middle of the Gth century. He is the author of a work, divided into twelve books, in which he treats of bodily distempers. He was the first to open the jugular vein, and to use cantharides as a blister for the gout. Dr Freind, in his History of Physic, styles him one of the most valuable authors since the time of Hippocrates. See also Pr Milward s Trallinnus Rcviviscena ; or, An Account of Alexander Trallian, one of the Greek Writers that flourished after Galen, being a Supplement to Dr Frcintfs History of Physic, London, 1734, Svo. The Greek text of his principal work was first published by Jac. Goupylus, Lutet. 1548, fol. It was reprinted, and was then accompanied with a Latin version by Jo. Guiuterius, Basil, 1556, Svo. lie is likewise the author of an epistle on worm&, De Lumbricis, which was published, in Greek and Latin, by Mer- curialis, in his Varies Lcctioncs, Venet. 1570, 4to. ALEXANDER BALAS (a surname that probably means &quot;lord&quot;), a man of low birth who professed to be the son of Antiochus Epiphanes, and eventually became king of Syria. His claims were recognised by the Romans, who desired to revenge themselves on Demetrius Soter ; and their example was followed by the king of Egypt and other monarchs. Demetrius was at first victorious, but in 150 B.C. was slain in battle, and Balas obtained possession of the kingdom. The new king soon made himself hateful to his subjects by his voluptuoiisness and debauchery, and this encouraged Demetrius Nicator, the eldest son of Demetrius Soter, to claim his father s crown. Alexander took the field against him, but was defeated in a pitched battle, and fled to Abse in Arabia, where he was murdered by the emir, with whom he had sought refuge, 145 B.C. ALEXANDER JANN/EUS, king of the Jews, suc ceeded his brother Aristobulus in 104 B.C., and died in 79 B.C. His reign, which he commenced by putting to death one of his brothers who claimed the throne, was disgraced by the cruelties that he perpetrated in order to keep himself in power. ALEXANDER SEVERUS, Roman emperor. See SEVERUS. ALEXANDER was the name of eight POPES : ALEXANDER I., bishop of Rome, succeeded Evaristus in 108 or 109 A.D., and, according to Eusebius, suffered martyrdom under Hadrian in the year 119. Catholic writers ascribe to him the introduction of holy water, and of the custom of mixing sacramental wine with water. ALEXANDER II., whose family name was Anselmo Baygio, was born at Milan, and occupied the papal chair from 1061 to 1073. He had previously, as bishop of Lucca, been an energetic coadjutor with Hildebrand in endeavouring to suppress simony, and to enforce the celibacy of the clergy ; and his efforts to augment the influence of the Roman see prepared the way for the com plete ascendancy which was established by his celebrated successor. The imperial sanction being withheld from Alexander s election, a council at Basle chose as anti-pope Cadolaus, bishop of Parma, who assumed the name uf Honorius II., and marched to Rome. He was deposed, however, by a council held at Mantua, and Alexander s posi tion remained unchallenged. Alexander was succeeded by his associate Hildebrand, who took the title of Gregory VII. ALEXANDER III. (Rolando llanud of Siena), cardinal and chancellor of the Roman church, was elected to the popedom in 1159, and reigned until 1181. His career is of great historical importance on account of the vigour and ultimate success with which he carried out the ideas and policy of Hildebrand in opposition to Frederick Barbarossa and Henry II. of England. Three anti-popes (Victor IV., 1159; Pascal III., 1164; Calixtus III., 1168) were con firmed by the German emperor in succession. Alexander, however, steadfastly maintained his rights, though com pelled to take refuge in France between the years 1162 and 1165. The contest between pope and emperor was continued with varying fortune until, on the 29th May 1176, Frederick was decisively defeated at Legnano, when he at once withdrew his support from the anti-pope and submitted to Alexander. On the 1st August 1177 the emperor yielded tho customary homage to the pope at Venice by kissing his foot, and was freed from the ban of