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 efficient way to transfer electromagnetic energy. WAVEGUIDES are essentially coaxial lines without center conductors. They are constructed from conductive material and may be rectangular, circular, or elliptical in shape, as shown in figure 3-17.

Figure 3-15.—Fields confined in two directions only.

Figure 3-16.—Fields confined in all directions.

WAVEGUIDE ADVANTAGES

Waveguides have several advantages over two-wire and coaxial transmission lines. For example, the large surface area of waveguides greatly reduces COPPER (I$2$R) LOSSES. Two-wire transmission lines have large copper losses because they have a relatively small surface area. The surface area of the outer conductor

Figure 3-17.—Waveguide shapes.

of a coaxial cable is large, but the surface area of the inner conductor is relatively small. At microwave frequencies, the current-carrying area of the inner conductor is restricted to a very small layer at the surface of the conductor by an action called SKIN EFFECT.

Skin effect tends to increase the effective resistance of the conductor. Although energy transfer in coaxial cable is caused by electromagnetic field motion, the magnitude of the field is limited by the size of the current-carrying area of the inner conductor. The small size of the center conductor is even further reduced by skin effect, and energy transmission by coaxial cable becomes less efficient than by waveguides. DIELECTRIC LOSSES are also lower in waveguides than in two-wire and coaxial transmission lines. Dielectric losses in two-wire and coaxial lines are caused by the heating of the insulation between the conductors. The insulation behaves as the dielectric of a capacitor formed by the two wires of the transmission line. A voltage potential across the two wires causes heating of the dielectric and results in a power loss. In practical applications, the actual breakdown of the insulation between the conductors of a transmission line is more frequently a problem than is the dielectric loss.

This breakdown is usually caused by stationary voltage spikes or "nodes," which are caused by standing waves. Standing waves are stationary and occur when part of the energy traveling down the line 3-9