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 is closed, neither current nor voltage exists on the line. When the switch is closed, point A becomes a positive potential, and point B becomes negative. These points of difference in potential move down the line. However, as the initial points of potential leave points A and B, they are followed by new points of difference in potential, which the battery adds at A and B. This is merely saying that the battery maintains a constant potential difference between points A and B. A short time after the switch is closed, the initial points of difference in potential have reached points A' and B'; the wire sections from points A to A' and points B to B' are at the same potential as A and B, respectively. The points of charge are represented by plus (+) and minus (-) signs along the wires, The directions of the currents in the wires are represented by the arrowheads on the line, and the direction of travel is indicated by an arrow below the line. Conventional lines of force represent the electric field that exists between the opposite kinds of charge on the wire sections from A to A' and B to B'. Crosses (tails of arrows) indicate the magnetic field created by the electric field moving down the line. The moving electric field and the accompanying magnetic field constitute an electromagnetic wave that is moving from the generator (battery) toward the load. This wave travels at approximately the speed of light in free space. The energy reaching the load is equal to that developed at the battery (assuming there are no losses in the transmission line). If the load absorbs all of the energy, the current and voltage will be evenly distributed along the line.

Ac Applied to a Transmission Line

When the battery of figure 3-7 is replaced by an ac generator (fig. 3-8), each successive instantaneous value of the generator voltage is propagated down the

Figure 3-7.—Dc voltage applied to a line.

Figure 3-8.—Ac voltage applied to a line.

line at the speed of light. The action is similar to the wave created by the battery, except the applied voltage is sinusoidal instead of constant. Assume that the switch is closed at the moment the generator voltage is passing through zero and that the next half cycle makes point A positive. At the end of one cycle of generator voltage, the current and voltage distribution will be as shown in figure 3-8.

In this illustration the conventional lines of force represent the electric fields. For simplicity, the magnetic fields are not shown. Points of charge are indicated by plus (+) and minus (-) signs, the larger signs indicating points of higher amplitude of both voltage and current. Short arrows indicate direction of current (electron flow). The waveform drawn below the transmission line represents the voltage (E) and current (I) waves. The line is assumed to be infinite in length so there is no reflection. Thus, traveling sinusoidal voltage and current waves continually travel in phase from the generator toward the load, or far end of the line. Waves traveling from the generator to the load are called INCIDENT WAVES. Waves traveling from the load back to the generator are called REFLECTED WAVES and will be explained in later paragraphs.

STANDING-WAVE RATIO

The measurement of standing waves on a transmission line yields information about equipment operating 3-5