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948 down in detail of the method by which it can be done with the maximum of efficiency and in the least possible time. The former method has been adopted by a number of firms in Great Britain, the latter in comparatively few cases. Both are largely in opera- tion in America. " Time study " and " motion study " are usually resented by the workers employed, and are regarded as devices adopted by the employer with a view to " speeding up." It is also contended that both, and especially " motion study," result in making work more monotonous and in taking such variety of initiative as remains to the worker under modern factory conditions out of his hands and in concentrating control in the hands of a small body of expert rate-fixers, or " time- study " and " motion-study " experts.

Where piece-work or bonus systems are in operation, friction is very likely to arise because there is a constant suspicion on the part of the workers that the employer is endeavouring to " cut " piece-work prices and to " speed up " the slower workers to the pace of the more rapid. Employers, on the other hand, allege that workers deliberately slow down with a view to forcing up piece-work prices. It is impossible to estimate the relative pro- ductivity of workers under time-work systems and under systems of " payment by results "; but it may be taken as certain that no system of " payment by results " which has yet been devised has succeeded in eliminating friction or the possibility of "price- cutting " on the one hand, and " restriction of output " with a view to securing higher prices on the other. Perhaps the nearest approach to the elimination of these two factors is in the cotton industry; but the comparatively smooth working of the piece- work system in this case is mainly due to the peculiar stand- ardized character both of the product and of the machinery. The cotton " price-list " system cannot readily be adapted for use in the majority of industries.

REFERENCES. There are only two books (jiving a general survey of the various wage systems. These are (l) Methods of Industrial Remuneration by D. K. Schoss (Williams and Norgate), which was written a good many years ago, and is now in many respects out of date, and (2) The Payment of Wages by G. D. H. Cole, which is the most recent study. See also, for conditions in England, Industrial Democracy by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, and The Works Manager To-day by Sidney Webb. There is an immense literature dealing with scientific management in relation to " payment by results." Reference may be made especially to Scientific Management and Labour by R. F. Hoxie; Scientific Management by C. B. Thomson; Scientific Management by F. W. Taylor; Scientific Management by H. B. Drury; Efficiency and other works by Harrington Emerson; Work, Wages and Profit by H. L. Gant; and A Rational Wages System by H. Atkinson. For premium bonus systems, see The Pre- mium System of Paying Wages, published by The Engineer; The Rowan Premium Bonus System by W. Rowan Thompson ; and The Premium Bonus System, Report of an Enquiry, published by the British Trades Union Congress. A great deal of information will also be found in the following reports issued by the Board of Trade: " Report on Collective Agreements " (1910) and " Report on Standard Piece-Rates." Unfortunately, however, no new or revised editions of these have been issued since some years before the \var. See also the Final Report of the Commission on Industrial Relations, published by the U.S. Government in 1915. (G. D. H. C.)

WAGNER, ADOLF (1835-1917), German economist (see 28.23S*), died in 1917.

WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL (1823-1913), British biologist, (see 28.275), died at Broadstone, Dorset, Nov. 7 1913. In 1910 he received the O.M. Among his latest publications were The World and Life (1910) and Social Environment and Moral Progress (1912).

WALLACE, SIR DONALD MACKENZIE (1841-1919), British author and journalist, was born Nov. n 1841, the son of Robert Wallace of Boghead, Dumbartonshire. He was educated at the universities of Edinburgh, Berlin and Heidelberg and at the Ecole de Droit, Paris. Even in his Edinburgh days he spent his vacations abroad and became proficient in modern languages, and when he completed his legal studies at Heidelberg he was already 28 years of age and was contemplating a career as a German professor in comparative law. He was, however, invited by a friend to visit Russia, and became so much interested that he remained there for-six years. His 'Russia (1877), a volume dealing comprehensively with the country, had a great success, and was at once recognized as a classic; it was translated into many languages and was revised and reissued by its author both in 1905 and 1912. Shortly after its first appearance Mackenzie Wallace became correspondent of The Times in Petrograd; in 1878 he was moved in a similar capacity to Berlin, thence to Constantinople, and after the battle of Tel-el-Kebir (1882) to Egypt. From 1884-9 he was in India as private secretary to the Viceroy, Lord Duffcrin, and to his successor, Lord Lansdowne. He accompanied the Tsarevich Nicholas during his Indian tour 1890-1 and the Duke of Cornwall (afterwards George V.) during his colonial tour in 1901. From 1891-9 he was director of the foreign department of The Times. In 1899 he undertook the editorship of the New Volumes (issued in 1902 as the zoth edition) of the Encyclopedia Britannica, which had been pro- jected by The Times as a supplement to the gth edition, with Dr. A. T. Hadley, then president of Yale University, as his American co-editor; but he felt somewhat overpowered by his task, and after April 1900, when Mr. Hugh Chisholm was brought in by The Times to assist his labours, Sir Donald left the editorial work in the sole charge of his younger colleague. He was made by Edward VII., with whom (as with Queen Victoria) he had long been on confidential terms, one of his official household, and was also included in that of George V. He had been created K.C.I.E. in 1887, and was made K.C.V.O. in 1901. In addition to his book on Russia he published Egypt and the Egyptian Question (1883) and The Web of Empire (1902). He died at Lymington Jan. 10 1919. A thorough diplomat of wide culture and personal charm, and one of the most remarkable linguists (speaking some twenty languages) and raconteurs of his time, he was also one of the most modest and unselfish of men. He was probably better informed than any other man of his day in the secret history of international politics, but he was also discretion personified in using his knowledge. One of his last important pieces of work for The Times was in 1905 at the Peace of Portsmouth (N.H., U.S.A.), which he attended as its correspondent, and he was able there to give valuable advice, in carrying the negotiations to a successful issue, to the Russian delegates, with whom he exercised considerable authority.

WALLACE, WILLIAM (1860- ), British musical composer, was born at Greenock July 3 1860, the son of a doctor in good practice. He was educated at Fcttes College and Glasgow University, where, with the view of entering the medical pro- fession, he graduated M.B. in 1885 and M.D. in 1888. He afterwards specialized in ophthalmology, studying at the Munr- fields eye hospital, and also at Paris and Vienna. His inn .:<] education was partly received at the Royal Academy of Music, but he remained there for less than a year, and was largely self- taught. His orchestral works include The Passing of BI-. (1892); The Creation, a Symphony (1809); Pcllcas and Mdr (1900); and the symphonic poems, Wallace (1905) and I (1009). He also published some fine songs and collection songs (often to his own words), including Freebooter Songs (i^^l and Lords of the Sea (1902) and Three Songs of Blake. Ife \v;i a period secretary of the Philharmonic Society. In additi. being a connoisseur of art in most forms, Wallace publ: several literary works of distinction. Of these The. Dhini render was a mystery play; his books on musical history theory, The Threshold of Music (1908) and The Musical F its origin and processes (1914), are both important in their Also he translated the operatic texts of Strauss's /'Y;r< < Berlioz's Faust, Le Chemineau, Muquctle and the poems of many songs by Sibelius and Weingartner. At one time he edite New Quarterly Musical Review, and he was a frequent contri! to various magazines. During the World War he entered^^M R.A.M.C. as a captain, and acted as ophthalmologist t<> Colchester military district, inspector of ophthalmic centr the Eastern Command, and ophthalmological specialist for the : London district, and he published various articles in scicntifu journals on the vision of the soldier and war injuries to tin In this way he made effective use of his earlier professional training. He married in 1905 Ottilie, daughter of Lord M'Laren herself a sculptor who had been a pupil of Rodin; as deputj

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