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her of tribesmen as levies. In the vicinity of Shiraz, a detachment was taken out to attack the Kashgais before it was sufficiently trained, with the result that the men behaved badly and allowed themselves to be disarmed. However, they had constructed posts along the route and these they held at the outbreak of war.

The Bakhtiari Domination. The chief role in the Persian revolu- tion had been played by the Bakhtiari tribe which, entirely owing to the influence of Sirdar-i-Assad, had marched on Teheran and secured the abdication of Mahommed 'Ali Shah. During the years that followed, not only had they held the chief posts but their tribesmen had been the mainstay of the constitution. Whenever an expedition had been sent out, they drew money, arms and ammuni- tion, most of which ultimately reached the Bakhtiari country. Sirdar-i-Assad had undoubtedly cherished the ambition of founding a new dynasty, but while events were favouring his designs, he be- came blind. However, his tribe continued to dominate Teheran and assumed a provocative attitude towards the gendarmerie. The Swedish officers took prompt action, surrounded the Bakhtiari quarter with machine-guns and artillery, and put an end to an intolerable state of affairs from which Europeans as well as Persians had suffered. The chiefs, perforce, agreed to dismiss the greater part of their contingents and felt the humiliation so keenly that they never again attempted to dominate the capital.

German Activity before the World War. For some 20 years before the war, Germany had made strenuous efforts to increase her influence and interests in Persia. Perhaps the most definite success gained at the capital was the opening of a college staffed by German professors, to which the Persian Government was induced to con- tribute a handsome annual grant.

But to realize the persistence with which her policy was conducted, attention must be turned to the Persian Gulf. Before 1896 Germany had no representative or trade in that torrid region but, in that year, the campaign opened by the firm of Wonckhaus establishing itself at Lingeh where it began dealing in mother-of-pearl; and, in 1897, a German vice-consulate was founded at Bushire. Three years later Germany made great efforts to purchase a site for the terminus of the Bagdad railway at Kuwait, but the astute Sheikh Mubarak had previously concluded a secret treaty with Great Britain by the terms of which, in return for protection, he agreed not to sell or lease any of his territory without the consent of that Power. Ger- many did not accept this rebuff as final and induced Turkey, mem- bers of Mubarak's family, and the Wahabis to take a hand in the game, but all direct attacks were foiled by British sea-power. A more successful plan was to induce the Turks to establish posts in Khor 'Abdalla, an inlet running from behind Bubiyan Is. to within 30 m. of Basra. The fact that the creek was situated in Mubarak's territory mattered nothing, and these posts were occupied until the outbreak of the World War. Five years after its foundation at Lingeh, the firm of Wonckhaus, supported by German subsidies, opened its headquarters on the Bahrein Is. with branches at Basra and Bandar 'Abbas. The reason for the change of headquarters was soon evident as the islands are situated among the pearl banks, of which Germany attempted to gain control through a lease derived from the Sultan, whose claims in the Persian Gulf were shadowy. The little island of Halul, which is situated in the centre of the banks, was particularly aimed at, but Great Britain intervened and spoilt the new scheme. Germany was indefatigable in her efforts. Foiled entirely as regards the pearl fisheries, she attempted to control the working of the red oxide deposits "ol Abu Musa. The Sheikh of Sharja, a Trucial chief, bound by treaty with Great Britain not to enter in an agreement with any other Power, had granted a con- cession for working these deposits to three Arabs, two of whom lived at Lingeh, while the third partner was his own subject. Wonckhaus acquired the concession which the Sheikh promptly cancelled, send- ing a large body of his subjects to expel the concessionaires. This action raised a storm in the German press, but the case was too weak to be supported and merely a formal protest was made. The last attempt to be recorded was to secure a large piece of land along the river bank at Mohammerah, with the object of creating a German settlement, quays, etc., but again British vigilance was too strong. Much credit is due to Sir Percy Cox, the British Resident, for foiling every German attempt. In spite of these failures, in 1906 the Ham- burg-Amerika Co. started a service to the Persian Gulf. The first steamer created a sensation, lavish hospitality being dispensed to all comers, who also welcomed the novelty of a band. Trade was small at first and native passengers were not encouraged, but shipments of railway material helped matters and ultimately a flourishing trade was established. Great Britain, at the actual outbreak of war, was engaged in negotiations with Germany and Turkey. So far as the former Power was concerned, but for the war she would have secured a strong position at Basra, the destined terminus of the Bagdad railway. The suzerainty of Turkey over Kuwait was also acknowledged. In other words British predominance in the Persian Gulf would have been weakened. So far as this important problem was concerned, the results of the war have been beneficial.

Persia at the Outbreak of the World War. The regent left Per- sia for more than a year in 1912, merely returning to arrange the coronation of the young Shah. This took place with due pomp

and circumstance in July 1914 and, as Nasir el Mulk left Persia again after the ceremony, the young monarch had hardly taken up his duties when the war broke out. His Majesty summoned the Majlis and duly proclaimed the strict neutrality of Persia. The position was, however, very difficult. The grandees were, in many cases, only anxious to receive money from one or more sides; the masses hated the Russians and disliked and mistrusted the British for being friends of their enemies. There was sympa- thy in some quarters for the Turks and " let the Christians devour one another " was frequently heard. But the outstanding feature was the powerlessness of Persia. Her military forces included the Cossack brigade 8,000 strong, the Swedish gendarmerie 7,000 strong, and the useless Persian troops under Persian officers.

At first sight it would seem unlikely that remote Persia should become a war theatre, but actually this was bound to be the case, unless she could defend her neutrality. A reference to the map will show that Azerbaijan, the N.W. province of Persia, marches with Turkey on the W. and with Russia to the N. Furthermore an advance by either belligerent through Persian territory would enable that Power to outflank the other and operate in open country, whereas a direct attack could only be made across the very high range which runs from the shores of the Black Sea to Mount Ararat. This strategical fact had been realized by Russia and Turkey before the outbreak of the World War, and both Pow- ers, taking advantage of the impotence of Persia, had established themselves in Persian territory in the vicinity of Lake Urmia, the Turks holding the chief passes on the Perso-Turkish frontier which was only finally delimitated just before war began.

Russo-Turkish Operations in Azerbaijan. At the outbreak of hostilities the Russians, in this section of the war theatre, as- sumed the offensive and drove the Turks back on Van. However, the Kurds on both sides of the frontier rallied to the Turks and, finding Tabriz undefended, entered it in Jan. 1915. They then moved northwards along the road to Julfa, only to be repulsed by a Russian detachment which subsequently reoccupied Tabriz. At Urmia the Kurds, driving in front of them the Christian tribes- men of Targavar, assaulted the town, hoping to massacre its Christian inhabitants. But, aided by a small Russian detach- ment and the tribesmen of Targavar, the townspeople drove off the enemy. The Russians, in view of the Turkish invasion of the Kars province, were obliged to draw in their outlying detach- ments, and this was followed by the exodus of 10,000 Christians.

In the spring of 1915, after the crushing defeat of the Turks at Sarikamish, the Russians reoccupied Urmia and advanced to Van. They were joined by the Assyrian Christians of Kurdistan, who, when left alone to bear the brunt, actually migrated with their families and flocks to the neighbourhood of Urmia, whence they raided their enemies the Kurds and generally did good service to the Russians, until the disintegration of the Russian army.

Operations in S.W. Persia. Before war was declared by Tur- key, the Government of India took the wise precaution of des- patching a brigade of Indian troops to the Bahrein Islands. At the outbreak of hostilities, this force pushed up the Shatt al 'Arab to protect the important refineries of the Anglo-Persian Oil Co. on the island of Abadan. This brigade was rapidly increased to a division which, after defeating the Turks at Sahil, a few miles above the oil refineries, occupied Basra on Nov. 23. The occu- pation of Basra effectually protected the oil refineries, but these works in their turn depended on the oil-fields at Maidan-i-Naftun and the vulnerable pipe-line which was laid through Ahwaz and was 150 m. in length. The neighbouring tribesmen, partly through propaganda and partly through fanaticism, had breached and fired the pipe-line in several places. The Bakhtiari tribe, with which the British had maintained friendly relations for many years and which owned the ground on which the oil-wells were being worked, was generally hostile, the arrangement sometimes being that the fathers professed pro-British sympathies while the sons were fighting for the enemy. To protect the pipe-line, a brigade was despatched to Ahwaz, where it was faced by a con- siderable number of Turks supported by thousands of tribesmen. A reconnaissance in force found the enemy much stronger than was expected and was obliged to retreat with heavy losses, but