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738 designed to suit special conditions, chiefly as regards environment, e.g. the director on an above- water tube in a torpedo-boat destroyer, the director in the conning tower of a capital ship, etc. The same underlying principle obtains in every case. Suppose, a torpedo be discharged (see fig. 3) from A so as to hit a ship steaming in the direction BC at C. B is the position of the enemy ship at the mo- ment of firing. Completing the triangle on a convenient scale, clearly

FIG. 3. Diagram illustrating the principle of the Director Sight (A) on own ship at moment of firing, (B) target ship at moment of firing, (C) position of target when torpedo hits.

AC is to BC as " speed of torpedo " is to " speed of sailing " ; and AB is the line of sight, its length and direction representing the velocity and direction of the torpedo relative to the target. Alter- natively AC is to BC as the " running range of torpedo to hit " is to the " distance the target moves during time of flight of torpedo," and the length of AB is a measure of the firing range. In addition, if AC is taken to represent the maximum running range of the torpedo, the length AB is a measure of the maximum possible shot " range under a given set of conditions as regards enemy speed and course. If the range-finder range when the sights come on is greater than that represented by the length AB, the torpedo will not reach its objec- tive. It is obvious that a set of three bars, arranged so as to be capable of sliding and pivoting over each other, provide a torpedo sight which can be graduated so that the possible shot range can be read off direct after the sight is adjusted and torpedo fire withheld if necessary. Earlier types actually took this form, a foresight being fitted at the B end of the bar AB and a backsight at A.

It will be seen that the chances of obtaining hits with torpedoes are almost entirely dependent on the correct estimation of the enemy's course and speed, and the officer handling the instrument has to be a highly skilled specialist in these duties. It will also be seen that the effect of errors in estimation will vary in direct proportion to the number of ships comprising the target, and to the running range to obtain a hit, and are inversely proportional to the speed of the tor- pedo, for any particular speed of enemy. It is therefore clear that attacks on single ships under way are not likely to be successful un- less carried out at short range, and that to insure success against an enemy fleet at long range, it is necessary to fire a large number of torpedoes. A large proportion of these will be wasted, but a torpedo- infested zone will result, which the enemy will find difficult to avoid, unless he is prepared to make large alterations of course, and these will undoubtedly affect the efficiency of his gunfire very seriously. The most obvious way of producing these torpedo-infested zones is to employ large numbers of torpedo-boat destroyers against the enemy, but this must not be considered to be an argument for the abolition of torpedo tubes in big ships, the mere fact that torpedoes are carried by opposing capital ships having a considerable bearing on the tactics employed and the ranges at which the action is fought. (W. M. M. R.)

TOSTI, SIR FRANCESCO PAOLO (1846-1916), composer and teacher of singing, was born at Ortona, Abruzzi, April 9 1846. He began his musical studies at Naples at the age of 14. In 1876 he paid his first visit to England ; five years later he was appointed teacher of singing to the Royal family and settled in England. He published many songs, which from the first had a wide success, the most famous being " Goodbye," " Ask Me No More," and " For Ever." He was knighted in 1908. He died at Rome Dec. 2 1916.

TOURNEUX, JEAN MAURICE (1849-1916), French man of letters (see 27.107), died in Paris Jan. 13 1916. TOWNSEND, MEREDITH WHITE (1831-1911), English journalist, was born at Bures, Suffolk, April i 1831, and educated at Ipswich grammar school. In 1848 he went out to India, and four years later became editor of the Friend of India, acting also for some years as Times correspondent. In 1860 he returned to England and purchased the weekly Spectator (see 19.562). With R. H. Hutton he was joint-editor until 1898, and he was largely' instrumental in making it an established success, writing most of the political articles and the opening paragraphs every week. [ His two chief publications were The Great Governing Families* of England (1865), written in conjunction with Langton Sanford, and Asia and Europe (1901). He died at Little Bookham, Surrey, Oct. 21 1911.

TOWNSHEND, SIR CHARLES VERB FERRERS (1861- ), British general, was born Feb. 21 1861, and joined the Royal Marines in 1881. He served at Suakin in 1884, and in the Nile expedition of the following year. He joined the Indian army in 1892 and was present in the Hunza-Nagar operations of that year. He greatly distinguished himself by his gallant defence of the Chitral fort during its prolonged siege in 1895, for which he was rewarded with the C.B. and a brevet majority. Then, in 1897-8, he served with the Egyptian army in the reconquest of the Sudan and won the D.S.O., shortly after which he was transferred to British Infantry. He served for ' some months in the field during the S. African War, was pro- moted colonel in 1904, was for some time on the staff in India, i afterwards commanded a district in S. Africa, and was promoted j major-general in 1911. He was then for some months in charge : of a Territorial division at home, after which he went to India to command a brigade.

In April 1915 he was sent to Mesopotamia to take over com- mand of the 6th (Indian) Division in that theatre of war. Aided : by some other troops his division worked its way up the Tigris, driving the Turks out of more than one fortified position, and ; on Sept. 28 Townshend signally defeated the enemy near Kut- el-Amara and occupied the town, while detachments pursued the enemy halfway to Baghdad; shortly afterwards he was in- I structed to advance and occupy that city. On the move being made, he encountered the enemy in superior numbers at Ctesiphon, and after severe fighting was obliged to effect a retreat of 120 m. to Kut, and there he and his force were speedily hemmed in. A skilful and resolute defence was made, lasting 143 days till the end of April 1916 but then, supplies being exhausted and all efforts at relief having failed, he was obliged to capitulate. He was rewarded with the K.C.B. for his services. He remained a prisoner of war near Constantinople until Oct. 1918, when he acted as intermediary between the Porte and the Allies in adjusting the Armistice. He retired from the army in 1920, and entered Parliament as member for the Wrekin | division of Shropshire.

TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL (1836-1919), American Hebrew scholar (see 27.114), died in Cambridge, Mass., May 12 1919. In 1913 he published Introduction to the History of Religions. TRACTORS. The petrol tractor for agricultural and kindred purposes is a development of the steam traction engine, widely used for operating grain threshers and to a small extent for ploughing. Steam ploughs were used toward the end of the 19th century on the large ranches of the north-western section of the United States, in Canada and in Egypt. Their usefulness was limited, however, owing to their great weight, which resulted in the packing of the soil and in rather inefficient operation. When the weight of the petrol engine was greatly reduced by motor-car engineers, about 1900, the idea of substituting that type for the heavy steam plant naturally suggested itself.