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736 act of sacrifice was the prelude to the dawn of the enlightened Meiji era at the beginning of 1868. The anti-foreign agitation ceased, the Emperor received and treated as honoured guests the representatives of foreign Powers, and Japan was thrown open to the world. Tokugawa, having renounced his shogunate rights, retired to a strictly private life from which he never emerged. He even renounced the succession to his title for his direct heir in favour of a collateral branch of the family. The Emperor Meiji accepted that renunciation, but he gave him another title of prince to be bequeathed to his own son.

TORONTO (see 27.52), the chief city of Ontario, Canada, is the second city in size in the Dominion. In 1911 its pop. was 376,538; in 1921 the estimated pop. was nearly 600,000. Canada's great- est manufacturing district centres about Toronto. The city contained in 1921 about 1,400 factories employing 85,000 hands and producing goods annually to the value of $300,000,000. The bank clearings in 1920 amounted to $5,410,214,802, Montreal being the only Canadian city that surpassed Toronto in this respect. Fourteen of the chartered banks of Canada had their headquarters in Toronto in 1921.

Buildings erected since 1911 include St. Paul's Anglican Church, a fine edifice in the early English Gothic style, seating 3,000 persons ; the Timothy Eaton Memorial Church, the greatest architectural ornament of Canadian Methodism, erected by the Eaton family at a cost of nearly $1,000,000; a 2O-storey office building by the Royal Bank of Canada ; a similar building by the Canadian Pacific railway, and several buildings for the university of Toronto. For several years preceding 1921 a large new Union station was under construction, and in that year was close to completion.

The Toronto hydro-electric system is one of the largest municipal supply undertakings on the continent of America. The manage- ment of the distributing system of the city was vested in 1911 in a board of three commissioners. The history of the enterprise has been one of phenomenal growth. Over 171,000,000 k.w. hours were sold during 1917 with a connected load of over 169,000 H.P.

The total assessed property in the city in 1919 was $642,816,090, an increase of 900 % since 1885. A project was under way in ui2i for the building of a 63 m. boulevard driveway by the municipality. The main boulevard which would be 33 m. long and from 100 to 500 ft. wide would completely encircle the city. Toronto took over its own street railways from a private company in 1921, and has since operated them for the benefit of the municipality. The Toronto Exhibition, the largest annual exhibition held on the continent of North America, drew 1,201,000 visitors in 1919. The construction of the Welland Ship Canal, which was in hand in 1921, was expected to make the port of Toronto accessible to the larger vessels plying on the Upper Lakes. A scheme for the development of the harbour, which had been begun previous to 1917, was well under way in 1921. The project included the reclaiming of Ashbridge's Bay, known now as the Harbour Terminal Industrial District, the improv- ing of the waterfront, the deepening of the harbour, and the con- struction of permanent breakwaters and concrete piers.

Toronto University has benefited greatly by large gifts from Sir John and Lady Eaton, Sir Edmund Osier and Sir Joseph Flavelle. In connexion with it a School of Engineering Research was founded in 1917 and a Faculty of Music was inaugurated the same year. A department of Social Service was founded, and in war time the university established courses for the training of masseuses that drew students from all over Canada. Hart House, a magnificent building in the Gothic style, was built by the university during the war and housed a number of war activities. It contains quarters for both the students' and Faculty unions, a dining hall, a gymnasium, a theatre and extensive offices for undergraduates' use. Dormitory residences were secured for students in the departments of Political Science and Medicine, and new residences were opened for woman students. An Electrical Engineering building, to cost 8350,000, was under construction in 1921, and a University Press was also being built. The attendance at Toronto University in 1921 was well over 5,000, the highest university attendance in the British Empire.

TORPEDO (see 27.53). In the World War of 1914-8 the torpedo played a most important part, especially as employed by the German submarines during the " ruthless " submarine cam- paign, which reached its height in April 1917, when enormous losses were caused by it to British and Allied merchantmen and fishing vessels. The total losses of British merchant ships due to submarines during the period Aug. 1914 to Nov. 1918 amounted to over six and a half million tons, and a very large proportion of this can be ascribed to torpedoes. In addition, British naval losses by torpedo over the same period included: 6 battleships, 5 cruisers, 3 light cruisers, 10 leaders, T.B.D's and T.B's, 4 sub- marines and 36 miscellaneous craft. Among these were H.M.S.

" Goliath," a battleship of 12,950 tons, sunk by a Turkish T.B.D. in May 1915 in the Dardanelles. That the torpedo menace largely influenced Adml. Jellicoe's tactics at the Battle of Jut-i land is plain from his own book (The Grand Fleet, 1914-1916). At Jutland the Germans on their side sustained considerable loss or damage from torpedoes; the battleship " Pommern ") and the light cruisers " Frauenlob," " Wiesbaden " and " Ros- tock " were sunk in this way, and 10 other ships were hit, three of which subsequently sank from other causes. The Germans fired between 60 and 70 torpedoes during the action and obtained two hits, one on the " Marlborough " and one on the " Shark "; the latter ship was sunk.

Apart from their use of the torpedo by larger ships, torpedo- boats and destroyers, the World War saw them also made the weapon of the coastal motor boat (C.M.B.), the development! of which in 1916 had been made possible by the installation of the internal combustion engine. The first operation on record carried out by British C.M.B's armed with torpedoes was an attack on German T.B.D's off Ostend, several destroyers being sunk. These C.M.B's operated from Dunkirk. Subsequently! C.M.B's were extensively used off the Belgian coast, and played a most important part in the blocking operations at Zcebrugge. They were also largely used in the Baltic (notably at Kronstadt) and Caspian Seas, and also at Murmansk.

FIG. 2. Discharge of torpedo from aeroplane.

A more novel use was the discharge of torpedoes from aero- planes (see figs, i and 2). It is claimed that this was first accom- plished in 1911 by an Italian, one Capt. Guidoni, who released a 35o-lb. torpedo from an 8o-H.P. Farman machine. In the same year the matter was taken up by various British naval experts who realized the possibilities of this form of attack from the air. Notable amongst these was Comm. (later Adml.) Murray Sueter. Adml. Fiske of the U.S. navy was also writing on the subject as early as 1912. By the end of 1913, the first British flight was carried out with a Sopwith seaplane carrying a i4-in. torpedo off Calshot, Southampton, and special machines were subsequently ordered by the British Admiralty. During 1914 experiments were proceeded with using " Short " seaplanes, and a