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734 A schedule of permissible substances was drawn up. What the sub- stances were was made evident to the trade in England by the pho- tographic reproduction in the English trade paper Tobacco of ad- vertisements from the Siiddeutsche Tabakzeitung. One of these advertisements read: " Beech, Chestnut, Lime, Maple, Plane, and Vine leaves in withered and quite dry condition, sound and cleanly sorted in sacks for instant delivery, against banker's security will be purchased. Samples asked for." Another advertiser offered for sale " Cherry leaves, tobacco brown, can be promptly delivered." Meanwhile the proportion of German-grown tobacco in cigars had increased until they were hardly fit to smoke. Large consignments of tobacco acquired by the manufacturers of Bremen, Hamburg, and Dresden from the Balkans were destined for the army, the civil population having to rely upon the substitutes. A similar shortage was experienced in Austria. In both countries drastic control regulations were enforced.

United States. In accordance with an Act of Congress, approved April 30 1912, the Bureau of the Census collects and publishes (quarterly since 1916) statistics of leaf tobacco held throughout the country. The statistics deal with all manufacturers who during the preceding calendar year produced more than 50,000 Ib. of tobacco, 250,000 cigars, or 1,000,000 cigarettes; and dealers who had on an average more than 50,000 Ib. of leaf tobacco in stock; included also is the imported leaf tobacco held in bonded warehouses and bonded manufacturing warehouses. No account is taken of smaller establish- ments or of amounts held by growers.

On Oct. i 1912 (first official report) there were on hand 1,047,404,- 560 Ib. ; on April I 1921 1,818,781,268 pounds. In every case the April report was the largest, as by that time the gathered crop has been sold. The largest production is " Bright yellow," from Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia (571,148,382 Ib. held April I 1921); " Burley," from Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio (399,- 001,690 Ib.); and "Dark fired," from Kentucky and Tennessee (178,847,170). Of "Cigar" types the "Pennsylvania" usually ranks first (93,918,626 Ib. held April I 1921); other important types are " New England," " Ohio," and " Wisconsin." A census of the tobacco crop was taken every 10 years after 1839 and of acreage after 1879. The peak of production was reached in 1920 with 1,508,064,000 Ib., estimated; the largest producing states were Kentucky (467,500,000 Ib., 550,000 ac.), North Carolina (384,120,- ooo Ib., 582,000 ac.), and Virginia (177,390,000 Ib., 240,000 ac.). Since 1869 Kentucky has been the leading state. For 1920 the estimated average yield per acre for the United States was 796 Ib., as against 894 in 1911, the record year; the variation of production among the states is remarkable, ranging from 600 Ib. per ac. in Georgia to 1,510 in Pennsylvania. Of the two recognized classes of tobacco " Cigar " and " Chewing, Smoking, Snuff and Export " the former constitutes only one-sixth of the production.

The peak of average prices was reached in 1919. That year the farmers sold 1,440,979,349 Ib., ranging from 17 cents in Pennsylvania to 65 cents in Louisiana. The averages for these states in 1911 were 9^ and 31 cents respectively; in 1920 20 and 40 cents. In the latter year Alabama led with 55 cents.

Although the United States surpasses all other countries in tobacco production, there are large imports of leaf for cigars and cigarettes. In 1920 imports were 82,231,396 Ib., of which 18,856,091 Ib. came from Asiatic Turkey, chiefly for cigarettes. Cuba furnished 23,616,- 999 Ib., Porto Rico 14,728,645 Ib., and the Philippine Is. 1,842,613; the Netherlands 7,720,255 Ib. and the Dutch East Indies 2,102,664 pounds. Imported cigars and cheroots come chiefly from the Philippines (over 5,000,000 in 1920). Over five-sixths of tobacco imports enter through the district of New York.

Exports of domestic tobacco and tobacco products from the United States amounted in 1920 to $288,693,799 as against 8306,- 861,519 in 1919. Of cigarettes there were exported 15,833,870,000, valued at $35,977,374; of these over 8,500,000,000 went to China, over 2,000,600,000 to Italy, and over 1,000,000,000 each to British India and the Straits Settlements. Most of the tobacco exports pass through the district of New York.

On Jan. I 1920 there were in the United States 13,591 tobacco factories, of which 11,483 produced cigars, 1,871 tobacco and snuff, and 237 cigarettes; of bonded manufacturing warehouses there were 13 producing cigars, 2 cigarettes and tobacco, and one tobacco. New York has the greatest number of establishments. The tax on tobacco is an important source of Government revenue. The amount collected rose from 83,097,620 in 1863 to $88,063,948 in 1916. Revenue in 1917 was $103,201,592; in 1918 $155,757,278; in 1919 $204,982,560; in 1920 $294,267,609.

The war period in America has been reviewed in a report of the U.S. War Industries Board. Herein it is stated that men in service used on an average from 60% to 70% more tobacco than they did in civil life. The civil population, due probably to increased prosperity, the cutting down of alcoholic beverages and the sentiment developed by the various campaigns for supplying " smokes " to soldiers, used 15 to 2O% more tobacco. No important control beyond some conservation in methods of packing was found necessary, though a price-fixing plan was under consideration when the war was closed. The demand from Europe, it was pointed out, as well as from the U.S. manufacturers, continued to increase, and when producers saw in the autumn of 1917 that they could successfully increase the price of their manufactured articles, even in face of the increase revenue taxes, very high prices for leaf were assured. It was nc until the middle of 1917 that the price of finished products In to rise. The advance was steady and rapid, reaching, 200 % c normal on many products by Sept. 1918. The tax on tobacco wa increased in Oct. 1917 and Feb. 1919, but these increases formed. relatively small part of the increase in prices.

Leaf Prices. The unprecedented consumption of tobacco product both in America and Europe reacted on the growers, who plante< large crops which they sold under favourable conditions. Prices o the raw material steadily mounted owing to the competition. A really accurate estimate of the effects of war conditions on the pric of raw tobacco would detail the various grades and growths am show the alteration as it affected each. The bright cigarette to baccos of Virginia and the Carolinas were among those whicl commanded very greatly increased prices, but perhaps the best wa; of dealing with the question is to take the average prices from KH to 1919. The statistical abstract for the United Kingdom give these average prices in pence per Ib. for unmanufactured tobacco a follows: 1913 9-92; 1914 9-75; 1915 8-92; 1916 9-44; 1917 15-47 1918 21-93; '919 26-29. Thus it is seen that manufacturers wen paying more and more for leaf tobacco, but prices later bccann more moderate. The cost of eastern leaf from Macedonia and ot he oriental countries was somewhat high in 1921, but was likely to ge lower with increased production.

Waves of Fashion. Long before 1914 the cigarette had alreach grown so in public favour that it was rapidly supplanting the pipi and cigar. The war intensified the process. Up to 1914 the esteemed cigarettes were of the finest Turkish or of bright Virgin!; tobacco. If anything, the Turkish cigarette was the more used li\ the fastidious smoker. War conditions caused the cigaretti o Turkish or Macedonian tobacco gradually to diminish and the British forces did their arduous work for the most part (and cially after the stocks of the better class Turkish cigarettes hat become scarce) on cigarettes of American tobacco. Cigars were ol course in request in officers' messes and among certain peop home. Pipes were used by comparatively few. After the Armistin both the cigarette and the cigar, but mostly the latter, seemed to In yielding ground to the pipe. Great Britain has for many year^ the home of smoking mixtures in which various kinds of tobacco an blended to make a satisfactory pipe mixture. These mixture much appreciated too in America, to which country there is a fail export trade. The British-made briar pipe also sells well in the United States. An influence towards making pipe smoking once; more the fashion was the imposition in 1920 by the British chamvllui of the exchequer of the ad valorem surtax of 50 % on imported < i This made imported cigars too dear and gave the impression to the public that all cigars were dear. When Mr. Austen Chamberlain subsequently stated, on April 25 1921, in the House of Commons, that " the surtax has lowered the revenue instead of raising it and has entirely failed to justify itself. Let others learn by the mistake 1 committed," he might have added that the surtax had temporarily, killed the cigar trade.

British Empire Tobacco. A new prospect was opened in the economic history of tobacco by the institution of the principle of preferential fiscal treatment of tobacco grown, produced, or manufactured in the British Empire. A reduction in the tax of one-sixth is acting as a stimulus to the young tobacco-growing industry of British Africa from Cape Colony to Rhodesia, of Canada^ and of some other portions of the empire. Growers in the United Kingdom and Ireland have also been encouraged by an allowance. This preferential taxation will probably be found of greater significance to the tobacco manufacturing industry and to the smoker than is even the attainment of the laudable object of helping the tobacco farmers of the empire. A quasi-monopoly such as that possessed by the United States and the Balkans does not economically suit the direct buyer (the manufacturer) or the eventual buyer, the smoker. A widening and multiplication of the sources of supply must have a steadying effect on prices. The lesson of the war was that, quite justifiably under the new conditions, very heavy prices had to be paid for all tobacco, whether from America, Nyasaland or elsewhere. For many years the Imperial Tobacco Co. have been large buyers of African tobacco. Their headquarters in Africa are at Blantyre, where they have encouraged the grower. Tobacco grown in Ireland and also in England has been put on the market with some success. In the British system of taxation a rebate of one-third of the excise duty was allowed on tobacco grown in Ireland for experimental purposes prior to 1909, and on tobacco grown in Great Britain up to 1913 inclusive. From those dates arrangements have been made under which certain grants sanctioned by the Treasury are applied in encouragement of the industry. In 1918 the following quantities were grown: England and Wales, 31,844 Ib.; Ireland, 77,978 total, 109,822 Ib. ; net receipt of duty, 34,482. In 1919: England and Wales, 78,825 Ib.; Ireland, 77,837 Ib.; total, 156,662 Ib.; net receipt of duty, 60,785.

TOGOLAND (see 26.1046). This German protectorate in W. Africa was conquered by Anglo-French forces in 1914, and German sovereignty was renounced by the Peace Treaty.