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protection against aggression on the part of Russian troops which were stationed there. Troops were sent from Sweden to main- tain order on the islands, and they achieved their purpose. When Germany, however, came to the support of the Whites and landed forces on the Aland Is., the Swedish troops were withdrawn.

Economic Measures. At the very beginning of the war period the Swedish Government carried through several special adminis- trative measures. The exportation of a number of commodities of great importance was prohibited, partly in order that they might be kept for home consumption, partly in order that they might control the exportation by export licences. This system was gradually developed until at last the export of all important goods was prohibited. An Industrial Commission and an Unem- ployment Commission were set up to decide on the measures which should be taken to maintain industrial work and to miti- gate the serious condition of unemployment which threatened. A Food Commission was appointed to study the development of the market, and a National War Insurance Commission was charged with the task of dealing with insurances against loss of life and property through the war on the seas, as the private in- surance companies were unable to undertake all the risks. The Riksdag's legislative powers were also called into play. A finan- cial Moratorium was instituted at an early date. The Riksbank's obligation to meet its own notes with gold was suspended, and new laws were introduced giving the Government new pow- ers, which were employed when necessary, to effect the compul- sory purchase of goods from individuals and to fix maximum prices on commodities. Swedish vessels could not be sold to other countries without the Government's sanction, nor could they carry freight from one foreign country to another. All this accumulation of legal measures, which presently had added to it the law against unreasonable increases in rent, the law against " profiteering " and several others, did not come about at once but grew out of the needs which were created by the conditions of the war period. New organs for war-time administration were formed in the Trade Commission (June 1915) and the Food Control Commission (autumn 1916), the former of which had to apply the War Trade Laws and to supervise exports and imports, while the latter, as the successor of an earlier Food Commission, took in hand the food rationing of the country.

Rationing. Before the war Sweden produced about four- sevenths of the cereals which she required; the rest had to be imported. On the other hand, she exported live cattle, pork and butter, the production of which was made possible by the impor- tation of feeding-stuffs. The fodder harvest of 1914 was so scanty that it necessitated a reduction of live stock. The impor- tation of cereals was undertaken by the State through the agency of the Food Commission. When there began to be a scarcity in some of the animal foods, and prices suddenly rose, recourse was had to the fixing of maximum prices for the first time in Nov. 1915. In the course of the year also the exportation of animal foods was restricted and producers were obliged, in return for the granting of export licences, to allot a certain proportion of their goods (" compensation goods " so-called) to the State for sale by the communal authorities at low prices to those who were less well-to-do. In the autumn of 1916 the scarcity of animal foods became so serious that rationing had to be decided on, and, even so, anxiety was occasionally felt lest the supplies should fail. The situation was aggravated later by the bad harvest of 1917. In Oct. 1916 it was decided that nobody should obtain sugar with- out presenting a sugar-card. These sugar-cards gave a person the right to purchase 13 kgm. of sugar a year, with an additional amount for preserving purposes to each family. In Jan. 1917 bread-cards were introduced. Farmers were allowed to retain a certain quantity of corn but had to sell all the surplus to the State. All such stores, whether bought by the State or imported, were rationed out to the rest of the population, who were given bread-cards providing at first allowances of 250 grammes a day to each person, later only 200 grammes, but again 250 in Nov. 1918. Persons engaged in particularly arduous work were al- lowed extra rations. The bread-cards were used also on jour- neys. The carrying out of this work of rationing needed very

thorough supervision, and this evoked dissatisfaction and annoy- ance, especially among the farmers. The system was changed in the food control year of 1918-9, each fanner being called upon to supply a certain specified quantity of corn and being allowed to do more or less as he pleased with what he had left. Rationing ceased at the end of Aug. 1919.

The supply of bread was scantier than in normal times, and it had to be supplemented with other food-stuffs, especially pota- toes. The consumption of all these rose enormously and a great scarcity began to be felt, most severely in the late winter and in the spring of the year 1917 and 1918. People had to have re- course to the eating of turnips. In the spring of 1917 there were food riots in various localities. In 1918 the danger of famine became worse, but calm prevailed. In the autumn of that year potatoes also had to be rationed, but this expedient did not work well. In densely inhabited localities milk was so rationed that the needs in the first place of small children, then of pauper children and the old and the sick were supplied. The exportation of meat, including bacon and pork, ceased altogether in the first half of 1917. The scarcity of fodder became at times so intense that moss and heather and even pine-needles had to be employed as substitutes in the cow-sheds. The selling of bacon and pork was placed under strict control, but only with the result that both disappeared almost altogether from the open market. The rationing of butchers' meat was considered, but it was not thought safe to take this step. Among other things rationed was coffee. The scarcity of food generally caused the Government to do what it could to intensify production by the putting of new land into cultivation, etc.

The Fuel Question. The fuel question was beset with difficul- ties although Sweden is so rich in wood. Before the war about 5,000,000 tons of coal and coke were imported, for the most part from England. When, during the war, the importation from Eng- land ceased, and Germany was unable to supply as much as Eng- land used to do, the country was faced by a very serious scarcity of fuel. This wasat the beginning of 1917. The regulation of the business of the wood supply was then entrusted to the Fuel Commission, which put wood-cutting operations in hand on an enormous scale. In Nov. 1917 56,000 workmen were in employ- ment at wood-cutting. Down to May 1918, when the work ceased for the most part, 19,400,000 cub. metres of wood had been cut. Forest owners were allowed to make provision for their own needs. Other households had certain specified quan- tities allotted to them, according to the number of persons in each, special wood-cards being provided and the price of the wood being fixed at figures which did not quite cover the cost. Those persons who wished to buy more could do so but at higher figures. Factories and railways had to pay higher prices. The result was that fuel was always available in sufficient quantities, but that the wood supply involved a loss to the State of over 100,000,000 kronor.

Industry during the War. The importation difficulties reacted also upon industries. There was a great scarcity of lubricants. This was partly met by the use of substitutes. The textiles, rubber and leather industries, as well as several branches of the chemical industry, suffered from the lack of raw materials. The scarcity of copper and certain other metals and metal alloys had injurious results on the working of electrical machinery and generally throughout the whole sphere of mechanical engineering, but, on the whole, Swedish industries were kept going under favourable conditions. To deal with the importation of raw materials, which was controlled by the Allies, import associations were formed by the manufacturers who needed the raw materials in question. These associations furnished the guarantees re- quired by the Allies and imposed corresponding guarantees on the delivery of the small quantities thus dealt out. The associations were controlled by the Trade and Industry Commissions. In cases where the supply of certain goods was exceptionally small the State laid claim to the whole, and a system of rationing was sometimes carried out by Raw Material Associations, formed by the manufacturers and craftsmen who were in need of them. In 1916 steps had to be taken in regard to regulations for the sale of