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offences, this being accompanied by the creation of a special official, to be appointed by the Riksdag, whose duty it would be to inquire into all allegations regarding abuse of power or other derelictions on the part of superior officers in the army or navy an appointment designed to act as a protection for soldiers and sailors against injustice.

An official declaration of neutrality was published without delay, and all the ministries holding office during the war, with the Riksdag's expressed approval, aimed at remaining absolutely neutral. Neutrality involved the duty of preventing any of the belligerent Powers from using Swedish territory as a basis for operations against enemies. Throughout the entire war the Swedish fleet remained on guard along the coasts of the country and on several occasions it had to take active measures. During the summer of 1916 there were many violations of neutrality in Swedish waters. In order to elude the observation of foreign battleships, trading vessels, flying the flags of belligerent countries, or carrying dangerous freights, sought to get through a channel called Kogrundsrannan within Swedish waters in Oresund, and apparently frequent attempts were to be expected on the side of belligerent countries at both ends of this channel to seize enemy vessels even at the risk of this occurring within Swedish waters. This channel was closed therefore against all but cer- tain known Swedish vessels. The Allied Powers considered this action incorrect and protested, but the channel remained closed until Dec. 1918. A number of trading vessels belonging to the Allied Powers, which, owing to the closing of the channel, were confined in th; Baltic, were, however, allowed egress on the con- dition that the Swedish population received a certain measure of necessary supplies from the west.

The stagnation produced by the outbreak of the war as regards foreign trade and shipping did not last long. Sweden became for a time, like Holland and Italy, an intermediary in the American trade with Germany, quite in accordance with international law as it stood before the war. When, however, the Allies proceeded to employ more and more stringently their weapon of blockade against the Central Powers this business as intermediary came quickly to a stop. The intensifying of the war at sea brought with it great obstacles in the way of neutral commerce. Its most painful feature was the sinking of neutral vessels by the German submarines, with its accompanying loss of lives. The mines which were spread about by other groups of belligerents also claimed many victims. The proceedings of the submarines called forth much indignation, and protests were made, but without much effect. The measures of the Allies were of a different order, but their control over shipping presently became so oppressive that protests against this aho were made, the weightiest protest coming from the three northern kingdoms acting together. Sweden's geographical position and the com- mercial conditions which existed before the war necessitated the maintaining of relations with both sides. Trade transactions with Germany were in 1913 somewhat in excess of those with Great Britain, but Great Britain was the larger purchaser of Swedish products. During the war one great displacement in trade resulted from the diminution of Sweden's imports of coal from Great Britain and the consequent necessity of making good this diminution by imports from Germany.

Despite all the difficulties to be encountered it proved possible to maintain importation into Sweden from the west of raw materials, grain and other necessaries down to well on in 1916, but from this time onwards there was an increasing scarcity. When the Allies intensified their blockade, and Sweden could not break off trade relations with Germany, the blockade-line was drawn not between Sweden and the Central Powers but west of Sweden and the other Scandinavian countries. All goods which had to pass the blockade-line in the North Sea on the way to or from Sweden were subjected to sharp control. As regards goods from Sweden certificates of origin and ownership had to be fur- nished, to make sure that they were not in reality disguised exports from Germany, while in the case of goods for Sweden guarantees were required to the effect that they would not be forwarded to Germany. Suspected goods were unloaded in

British seaports. Black lists caused serious losses to conscien- tious tradesmen as well as to others. Both groups of belligerents set on foot elaborate systems of trade espionage in neutral coun- tries. In order to regulate the undertakings which the belliger- ents demanded from merchants, manufacturers and shipowners, the so-called War Trade Law was passed in 1916 to give legal value to officially recognized undertakings to foreign Powers, while at the same time it was laid down that undertakings not thus recognized lacked all legal value. A special trades commis- sion was created to investigate all questions connected with this matter. The international goods exchange came to be worked like an enormous system of compensation, controlled by State officials by means of agreement. Every neutral country had to offer some equivalent in return for its imports. During the first years of the war it was to the interest of the Allied Powers that goods should go through Sweden to Russia. The great consign- ments caused inconvenience to the Swedish railways, but they made things easier for Sweden in the matter of imports.

Negotiations were set on foot for a commercial agreement be- tween Sweden and Great Britain and her Allies, but they led to no result during the time of Herr Hammarskjiold's Ministry, and this fact was turned to account against him in the political con- flict which went on over the internal affairs of the country. After this Ministry resigned on Mar. i 1917, and Herr Carl Swartz formed a new Government, the Foreign Minister, Adml. Lind- man, brought about a temporary agreement by which the Swedish people were allowed the right to import nearly 92,000 tons of grain and about 40,000 tons of other goods, on the condition that certain vessels belonging to the Allies then confined in the Baltic should be allowed egress through the cloned channel of Kogrund.

After Herr Eden's Ministry succeeded to that of Herr Swartz in the autumn new discussions were entered upon in regard to imports. In Feb. 1918 a so-called modus vivendi agreement was come to, enabling Sweden to import about 75,000 tons of maize, feeding-stuffs, raw phosphate, mineral oils and coffee, and in June a more comprehensive agreement was reached, in accord- ance with which it was possible to import larger quantities of grain, feeding-stuffs coal, oils, india-rubber, cotton, wool, hides, etc. In this connexion Sweden placed at the disposal of the Allies a portion of her commercial fleet. In addition, Sweden guaranteed to the Allies a certain share in her iron-ore exports, and also undertook to allow a certain amount of credit for goods bought in Sweden. In this way Sweden's most essential import was made sure of until the end of the war. In consequence of the universal scarcity the three Scandinavian countries came to an agreement as to the mutual exchange of commodities.

The hard conditions which prevailed during the war brought Sweden and Norway closer together again. After the severance between Sweden and Norway in 1905, and the election of a Danish prince as King of Norway, the relations between the Scandinavian countries had been somewhat cold. King Gustav, who at one time had been the "Norwegian Crown Prince, himself took the initiative, and in Dec. 1914 invited the Norwegian and Danish monarchs to a meeting at Malmo, at which the affairs of the three countries as affected by the war came under dis- cussion. Other such consultations followed, for instance at Christiania in Nov. 1917, and the prime ministers and foreign ministers of the three kingdoms also came together, while on some occasions of importance there were meetings at which special delegates were present.

In Jan. 1918 Sweden gave her recognition to the new Finnish State. When, shortly afterwards, the Red outbreak occurred in Finland, there was a strong movement in favour of Sweden's joining in on the side of the newly formed Finnish Government, but when the Russian troops began to take part in the struggle on the side of the Reds, Russia continuing to be a belligerent Power, the Government and the Riksdag agreed that it would not be wise to intervene. Swedish volunteers fought on the side of the Whites, and a couple of Swedish ambulances were sent over. Swedish refugees were brought back from Southern Fin- land. While the civil war in Finland was still in progress a peti- tion came from the inhabitants of the Aland Is. for Swedish