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during the Herero and Hottentot wars but in peace time the natives were systematically subjected to brutalities and robberies, by the Government as well as by the settler. One consequence was that, apart from Ovamboland, where the Germans had little authority, the native population had decreased from some 130,000 in 1904 to 37,000 in 1911. In 1920 it was estimated at 80,000. To reconstruct, as far as practicable, tribal organization, Sir Howard Gorges estab- lished native reserves (over 4,000,000 ac. in all) controlled by heredi- tary chiefs, when such survived, or by an elected or nominated headman. To these men small salaries were given. Rules to pro- tect natives in the railway and other public departments and in European private service were enforced.

THE NATIVE PROTECTORATES

No change was made in the political status of the native protectorates Basutoland, the Bechuanaland protectorate and Swaziland in the period 1910-21. They remained under the control of the Colonial Office, represented by the High Com- missioner for S.A. and were administered by resident com- missioners. They form in whole, or in greater part, native reserves, and the Basuto and Bechuana showed marked disin- clination to incorporation in the Union of S. Africa. All three protectorates prospered.

Basutoland. At the 1921 census the people numbered 500,544 (of whom 1,615 were whites and 155 Asiatics) compared with 403,845 in 1911 and 348,848 in 1904; of the total pop. in 1921 males numbered 224,435 an d females 276,109. Maseru, the capital and largest town had (1920) approximately 900 native and 500 white inhabitants. Outside Maseru, the white residents are nearly all officials or missionaries. Ownership of land by whites is forbidden. Some 20,000 male Basutos are normally employed outside the coun- try mostly on the Rand gold mines. Agriculture and stock raising are the chief occupation of the people.

Education is in the hands of the missionary societies, except for four small Government schools. In 1919 there were in all 344 schools with 28,500 scholars, most of the schools being maintained by the French Protestant Mission (the Paris Evangelical Society). Grants in aid are made by the administration (25,000 in 1920-1). Serious crime is rare and the drinking habits of the people, which once threatened their destruction, have been very largely abandoned under missionary influence. About one-fourth of the Basutos prefers Christianity. Trade is almost exclusively with the Cape and Free State provinces; the Basuto export grain, cattle, wool and mohair, and horses; and import mainly clothing, ploughs, saddlery, iron and tin ware, and groceries. The value of imports increased from 239,000 in 1908 to 1,137,000 in 1919. In the same period the value of exports rose from 193,000 to 1,380,000 in part due to inflated prices obtained for wool and mohair.

Financially Basutoland is self-supporting. Revenue is obtained from customs, licenses and, principally, from the poll tax on natives. This tax was substituted in ion for the hut tax previously enforced. A tax of i per annum on adult males was then put in force, but if a Basuto had more than one wife, he paid i per annum for each wife, up to a maximum of 3 for himself and his wives. This tax yielded 92,000 in 1913 ana 106,000 in 1918-9. Total revenue increased from 145,000 in 1910-1 to 199,000 in 1919-20; the corre- sponding figures for expenditure were 134,000 and 202,000.

The system of government which under a resident commissioner allows a measure of home rule to the Basutos continued to work well. The pitso or national council meets yearly, 95 out of its 100 members being nominated by the chiefs and the other five by the administration. It has advisory powers only, but its advice is often taken. Sir H. C. Sloley who had been resident commissioner since 1901, and who earned the full confidence of the people, was in Dec. 1917 succeeded by Lt.-Col. E. C. F. Garraway. Letsie II., who had been paramount chief since 1905, died in Jan. 1913. He was a great grandson of Moshesh, the founder of the Basuto nation and dynasty, and was succeeded by his brother Griffith. When the World War began Griffith and his people offered to raise regiments for com- batant service. The offer was declined, to the grief of the Basutos, to whom service with the labour contingent did not appeal. How- ever, 1,400 Basutos served with the S. A. Native Labour Contingent in France, and many were employed in S.W. and E. Africa. The Basuto also contributed 50,000 to war funds. In 1921 the new High Commissioner, Prince Arthur of Connaught, visited Maseru, and the presence of a member of the royal house was made the occa- sion for a national tribute by the " Sons of Moshesh " as the Basutos call themselves to their loyalty to the British throne and their wish to remain directly under imperial control.

Bechuanaland. The Bechuanaland protectorate is a much poorer country than Basutoland and the Bechuana are a less virile race than the Basuto. Bathoen, paramount chief of the Bangwaketse, died in July 1910 and Sebele, paramount chief of the Bakwena, died in Jan. 1911. Montsioa, chief of the Baralong, died in April 1911. All these chiefs were noted men in the early struggles between the Boers and British for the possession of Bechuanaland, Sebele being a son of the chief Sechele, the friend of David Livingstone. Khama,

the chief of the Bamangwato, and a Christian from his youth, still survived in 1921 and had then ruled over his people with undisputed authority for some 50 years.

The Bamangwato are the largest tribe, numbering about 40,000. The people grow maize, kaffir corn and other crops but their chief wealth is in cattle, and cattle hides and skins are the chief exports. Firewood and timber for mining props are also exported. In 1917-8 exports to the Union included 23,600 horned cattle and 36,000 sheep and goats. The chief markets are Kimberley, Mafeking and Johan- nesburg. For customs purposes the protectorate is dealt with as part of the Union and no statistics as to value of imports and exports are kept. Revenue, 52,000 in 1910-1, first exceeded expenditure in 1915-6, when the figures were revenue 70,000, expenditure 68,000. In 1919-20 revenue was 81,500, expenditure 91,600. Deficits were made good by grants from the Imperial Exchequer. The seat of the administration is Mafeking, in the Cape province. Mr. I. C. Macgregor became resident commissioner in 1917. Khama's headquarters are at Serowe (pop., 1920, about 25,000).

Swaziland. At the 1921 census the inhabitants numbered 113,772, of whom 2,203 were whites. Of the total pop. 54,702 were males and 59,070 females. The state of chaos into which Swaziland had fallen owing to the indiscriminate grant of concessions (see 26.181) was ended by 1914. The partition of rights between the European concessionnaires and the Swazis was completed in IQII, and those natives who were required to move from properties held by whites by July 1914, did so voluntarily such as did move, for many natives made terms with the concessionnaires and remained on their farms. Out of a total area of 4,274,000 ac. 1,635,000 ac. were set aside as Swazj reserves; in addition the Swazis bought 77,000 acres. The Swazis raise maize and other crops and own large stocks of cattle while 7,000 to 10,000 Swazis are usually at work on the Rand mines. The whites engage in agriculture, including fruit farming and cot- ton and tobacco growing and in mining. The gold mines, which pro- duced 6,497 oz. in 1915-6, were closed down as unprofitable in 1917. Tin of a total value of 346,000 was produced in the years 1915-20. The large coal deposits in the protectorate had not been exploited up to 1921. No separate statistics of Swaziland trade are kept. Revenue which in 1910-1 was 58,000 had risen to 91,800 in 1919- 20. Expenditure in the same period rose from 62,000 to 87,000. The settlement of the concessions' questions cost 182,000.

The administration is under the charge of a resident commissioner, with headquarters at Mbabane, a small, picturesquely situated hill village (altitude 4,000 ft.) overlooking the middle veld. The para- mount chief and other chiefs exercise jurisdiction in all civil cases in which natives only are concerned. Naba Tsibeni, the " queen regent," a well-known figure in Swazi history acted for many years as paramount chief, until the coming of age of her grandson Sobhuza (born about 1900). Education is mainly in the hands of missionaries; Sobhuza was educated at a Government school established at Naba Tsibenis Kraal. Mr. De S. M. G. Honey who had served in Swazi- land since 1904 became in 1917 resident commissioner.

HISTORY

The 12 years (1910-21) following the establishment of the Union of S.A. were marked by political, racial and industrial crises which profoundly affected the future of the country. The most urgent issue was raised by a powerful section of the Dutch community, which revived a narrow Nationalism and developed a demand for the separation of the Union from the British Empire. Coupled with this conception went strong opposition to action against Germany, or any share in the World War. But this Nationalist section, whose greatest figure was ex-President Steyn and whose mouthpiece was Gen. Hertzog, was unable to control events. The policy of Gens. Botha and Smuts of " building up a new State on non-racial lines " and as an equal member of the British Commonwealth prevailed.

Besides this main issue the growth of an organized Labour party, which found its chief stronghold on the Rand and put forward an advanced socialistic programme, presented perplexing problems to a community new to such manifestations. The position of Indians in the Union, and the resolve of the white races to prevent further immigration of Asiatics was another problem which caused acute controversy, only partially silenced by the ultimate assent of the Government of India to the policy of exclusion. And behind all these questions was the ever- present problem of the relation between the white and native races. Signs multiplied that the Bantu peoples, gaining in knowledge and an increasing factor in industry, had acquired a sense of race solidarity and would not rest satisfied with their existing economic, social and political status.

While these racial and political questions held the field they were accompanied by a steady development of the material