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32 with Central Asia, which was closed by Tsarist Russia, is now open for the union of the Turks. This road to the East is of great importance both on political and economic grounds.

If the spirit of independence among the Turks of Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Azerbaijan could be overcome by the unify- ing power of common language, race, religion, and culture, Tur- key might become a formidable political power based on the com- bined moral force of the Caliphate and of Turkish nationalism.

Pan-Turanianism, however, if pushed to extremes, is an arti- ficial and a retrograde movement, and would then come into irreconcilable conflict with Pan-Islamism. Thus the attempt to carry out the proposal of some of the Turks of Constantinople to renounce the religion of Mahomet, or even to substitute Turk- ish for the sacred language of the Koran, would incense the fanatical Moslem. Again, the Turkish peoples outside the Otto- man Empire do not form coherent populations, containing as they do large nomadic elements. On the other hand, the Otto- man Turks, indolent by nature, have never displayed any ability or energy in state-building. It is therefore not likely that they will develop enough statecraft and driving-power to succeed in welding together the different Turkish peoples into a single strong united empire containing perhaps 25,000,000 of the Turkish race. The extension of Pan-Turanianism so as to include other branches of the Turanians can only be pronounced to be a purely visionary idea. The only connecting link between them and the Turks at the present day is the descent of their various languages from a single parent speech that existed in remote antiquity: but Lapp and Manchu are to-day farther apart than English and Sanskrit. The other four branches now differ from the Turks in religion and civilization, besides being separated from them by great and often immense distances. The Samoyeds are nominally Christians, but really Shamanists. The Tunguses, who inhabit a vast tract of north-eastern Asia as Shamanists and reindeer nomads, are slowly dying-out in Siberia while their most prom- inent tribe, the Manchus, are being entirely absorbed by Chi- nese civilization. The Mongols, who are the eastern neighbours of Turkish tribes, and were many centuries ago politically asso- ciated with the Turks as warlike invaders of the West, are nomads and for the most part adherents of Buddhism, which has trans- formed them into a peaceful and unenterprising people that at the present day has hardly anything in common with the Turks. The Finno-Ugrian branch, for the most part separated by long distances from the Turks, have with very slight exceptions been thoroughly Europeanized and Christianized for many centuries. The Magyars, conquered by the Turks in the i6th and I7th cen- turies, fought on the side of the Turks during the World War owing to the pressure of the German alliance; but there seems to be no permanent prospect of political association between these two racially and linguistically related races. It thus seems clear that at least 2o,ooo,ooo'Turanians will never have the slightest inherent tendency to be drawn into union with the Islamic religion and civilization of the Turkish Empire.

AUTHORITIES. Sarron, La Jeune Ttirquie et la Revolution (1912); Tekin Alp, The Turkish and Pan-Turkish Ideal (1916); La Turquie et la Guerre (1916); " Islam and the War," Quarterly Review (April 1918); Macdonell, Turanians and Pan-Turanianism (1918); Eura- sian Routes (1920); Berliner Tageblatt (Jan. 24 and 28 1920). (A. A. M.)

PARAGUAY (see 20.756). The pop. of Paraguay in 1920 was supposed to be about 800,000. At least 60% of the inhabitants were illiterate, though President Franco during 19 16-9 made an attempt toward educational progress. The school registration for 1916 was 80,142.

Of the imports of Paraguay 81%, and of the exports 40%, pass through the Asuncion custom-house. The total foreign trade of Paraguay varied little between 1907 and 1918 though the proportion of imports to exports differed, as will be seen from the following table, showing the official customs values in Paraguayan gold pesos, equal to 45. or 80.96 each :

Imports

Exjxirts

Total

1907 1917 1918

7,512,502 5,098,581 5,201,726

3,236,110 6,494,802 -,1/1,319

10,748,612

",593,383 12,373,045

The United Kingdom had first place in imports until 1908, when Germany passed her, supplying 29% of the total imports as against Great Britain's 21 per cent. A close competition followed. In 1913 the United Kingdom supplied 28-6% of Paraguay's imports as compared with 27-6% from Germany, but in 1914 the situation was reversed, Germany supplying 27 % to the United Kingdom's 22-7 per cent. In 1915 and 1916 the proportion of imports from the United Kingdom rose to 33% and 38-5% respectively. There was in 1921 only one strictly British mercantile house, and only one American, as compared with five German houses.

History. Manuel Gondra became President on Jan. 18 191 1 but was overthrown by a revolution headed by Col. Albino Jara in July of that year. Jara was succeeded in turn by Liberate Rojos, who was overthrown Jan. 14 1912 by another " alteration of the legal order," as a consequence of which Pedro Pena was placed in the presidential chair Feb. 29. Considerable bloodshed accompanied these changes, which cost the country at least 400,- ooo. On March 25 Emiliano Gonzalez Navero became Presi- dent, retaining office until Aug. 15, when Eduardo Scherer suc- ceeded him. Scherer actually completed his term of office, the first time this had occurred in Paraguay since 1870. His firmness prevented several outbreaks and disturbances, especially one at the beginning of 1915, which might have been most serious under a weaker executive. Scherer's successor was fortunately another able man, Manuel Franco, who retained his position from Aug. 15 1916 until his death on June 3 1919. Franco not merely forestalled revolutions, but brought Paraguayan finance to the best condition it had reached for years. During his administra- tion the meat-packing industry became fully established in Paraguay. This was the greatest step forward that had occurred since 1870. By encouraging an industry which more than almost any other improves the lot of the individual farmer in a rather isolated agricultural country, the three United States packing- houses that established themselves in Paraguay during Presi- dent Franco's administration were of great service. They caused a thorough survey of Paraguay's cattle-raising possibilities to be made and also studied the different grasses and areas of pasturage and their suitability for different breeds of cattle. In 1918 37% of the total exports of Paraguay consisted of the products of stock-raising and meat-packing as against 32-4% for the prod- ucts of the forest industries (lumber, quebracho, etc.) and 30-2% for agricultural products.

Jose P. Montero filled the remainder of Franco's presi- dential term, from June 3 1919 to Aug. 15 1920, when Manuel Gondra again became President, having been elected while minister to the United States. The lessened demand from Europe and the United States for the chief exports of Paraguay at the close of the World War caused a decided setback to Para- guay's prosperity. On Jan. i 1921 Paraguay was unable to meet the payments due on her foreign debts, and the largest banks in the country became seriously involved, further aggravat- ing the commercial crisis. An American financial adviser was assisting the Paraguayan Government in 1921. On Nov. 17 1913 through rail communication was inaugurated between Asunci6n and Buenos Aires. This has done much to lessen the isolation of the country, for under normal conditions the journey between the two cities is made in 50 hours. Paraguay renewed direct diplo- matic relations with the United States in 1913, sending a minis- ter to Washington for the first time in eight years, while the United States created a separate mission for Paraguay in the same year, accrediting a minister to Paraguay alone, instead of to Uruguay and Paraguay jointly as formerly. Great Britain in 1921 still accredited one minister to both countries. The United States and Paraguay signed an extradition treaty on July 30 1913. In Nov. 1921, Pres. Gondra was ejected from office as the result of a revolution.

The Government remained neutral during the World War, though Congress adopted a resolution of sympathy with the Allies and of approval of the action of the United States in de- claring war on Germany. The Government dismissed some of its German employees, and maintained a pro-Ally attitude.

The best recent book on Paraguay is: W. L. Schurz, Paraguay, a Commercial Handbook, published by the Government Printing Office at Washington, D.C., 1920. (C. L. C.)