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Rh  is adopted are associated with various names—Mr. Foster King, Dr. Montgomery, and Sir Westcott Abell.

The “Unsinkable” Ship.—A so-called “unsinkable” ship has been designed by M. La Parmentier. It consists of two cylinders, 22 ft. in diameter and about 300 ft. in length, each divided into 7 holds, connected so as to form a vessel 320 ft. in length and about 48 ft. extreme breadth, estimated to carry 4,250 tons d.w. on a draught of 16 ft. fitted with twin screws, and engines of 700 H.P. for eight knots. In 1921 several such vessels were being built in the United States.

Cruiser Sterns.—Several of the new liners have a rounded stern, with the profile sloping forward in a curved line as it rises from the water upwards. This is called a “cruiser stern,” and is being very generally adopted. It gives somewhat increased capacity, and with the same total length of ship provides a longer water-line, thus facilitating propulsion. In the case of a 550-ft. ship, for 18 knots this meant a decrease of 2,000 H.P., which resulted in a saving of 225 tons of machinery, as well as 220 tons of fuel per trip, giving a saving of over 400 tons available for extra cargo. In 1921 over 160 vessels were built with sterns formed in this way.

On this system the flat plate rudder is replaced by two curved plate rudders (“Kitchen rudders”), forming an almost cylindrical casing round the propeller. By revolving these curved rudders as desired the stream of water is directed as necessary by reaction to steer the ship. For going astern the rudders are brought together abaft the propeller.

Safety at Sea.—During the war many other points were developed for increase of safety in navigation, such as use of range-finders, directional wireless, gyro-compasses, reflex sound apparatus, “clear view” weather screens, submarine sound signalling, and “Leader” cables laid along the bed of the channel.

Following the loss of the “Titanic” on April 16 1912, rigorous enquiries were conducted, in New York under Senator W. A. Smith of Michigan, and in London under Lord Mersey. In both cases recommendations were made that liners should have boats for all, regular boat drill, more efficient W.T. arrangements, and improved sub-division in construction. The British Board of Trade appointed two committees. Sir Archibald Denny presided over the first committee (Bulkheads and Sub-Division) and Sir John Biles over the second committee (Boats and Davits). As a result the Board of Trade laid draft rules before Parliament (Paper Cd. 6402 1912) and took immediate action to improve the supply of boats, while ship-owners proceeded to improve the sub-division of their ships. An International Convention was called with a view to similar treatment of these questions by all maritime powers. This Convention was signed on Jan. 20 1914 and rules embodying the agreement as to life-saving appliances were immediately put into force in Great Britain (Parliamentary Paper 219 Merchant Shipping Life-Saving Appliances dated May 8 1914). The whole Convention was discussed in Parliament, and an Act was passed (Aug. 10 1914) authorizing its adoption, but the Board of Trade was left with the power to decide the date on which the Act was to be put into operation. On account of the war, action was postponed, but discussions were proceeding in 1921 between the principal maritime powers with a view to the holding of another Convention.

During the war a great demand arose for improved life-saving appliances. The most successful of all these was the Carley Life Raft, made in the United States. It is made in various sizes. A large copper pipe is bent into the form of an O, brazed up to be airtight, surrounded by cork and canvas, provided with a strong rope netting to form a floor within the O, and fitted with hand ropes, etc. This type was the means of saving very many lives; for instance, a float 9 ft. by 14 ft. will support more than 60 people.

Research and Experiment.—Increasing attention is being given to the study of naval architecture and marine engineering, and of research, in America as well as in Europe. Chiefly owing to the advocacy of Sir W. H. White, and the generosity of Sir A. F. Yarrow, a national experimental tank has, in England, been provided at the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington. The experiment tank is intended for the service of any shipbuilding or ship-owning firm. Primarily intended for the experimental investigation of any problems connected with ship resistance and propulsion, it has successfully dealt with such different problems as the manœuvring of ships, torques on rudder heads, skin friction, resistance due to rough seas, rolling and pitching of ships, stability of ships and hydroplanes in motion on the water, and the form of flying-boat hulls for efficient and stable action in getting on and off the water. During the war it dealt with many problems, including the detection of submarines, mine-sweeping, torpedo firing, design of anchored mines, protection against torpedoes, and the design of standard ships.
 * (Author:Eustace Henry William Tennyson d'Eyncourt)

 SHIPPING (see ). In the decade following 1910, the influence of the World War had a profound effect on the shipping industry. Nor can it be limited to the period between the beginning of Aug. 1914 and Nov. 1918, when the Armistice was signed. For many months after the cessation of hostilities, a great strain was imposed on the British mercantile marine in the repatriation of millions of men. Goods which could not be transported during the war were waiting in vast accumulations to be carried, and in 1921 the effects on shipping were still being shown. In fact, so far-reaching were the effects that they were certain to be felt for many years.

The year 1910 was, judged by the ideas then ruling, a comparatively satisfactory one for British shipping, although the industry did not entirely escape the consequences of a strike of coalminers caused by difficulties traceable to the operation of the Eight Hours Act. In 1911 there were a number of industrial disturbances, notably in the collieries, on the railways, at the docks, among seamen and in the cotton-mills. Yet rates of freight were on a higher basis than for some years previously. The time charter rate, i.e. the monthly rate of hire per ton dead-weight for ordinary cargo steamers, may be taken as a good barometer of the condition of freight rates generally. As compared with a rate of about 3s. a ton, or rather more, ruling in 1910, the time charter rate rose to about 5s. in 1911. There was a further upward movement in 1912, which was regarded as a very satisfactory year for the shipping industry. Time charter rates ranged from about 4s. 6d. a ton to 7s. 6d. Employment for shipping was good, although, as some set-off to the increased rates, there was a general rise in working costs. In 1913 rates declined, partly owing to the increase in shipbuilding which had been carried out during the good years. The year 1914, destined to be one of the most important for shipping as for all other industries, opened with freights on a downward grade, and in midsummer the industry was in a very depressed condition. All freight rates for cargo steamers were low, and the liner companies were feeling the severe competition of the German ownerships. The two great German companies in the N. Atlantic trade—the Hamburg-Amerika and the Norddeutscher Lloyd—had been for years claiming a larger share of the passenger traffic. In the summer of 1914 the Deutsche-Australische Gesellschaft announced its intention of inaugurating a direct service from Hamburg to New Zealand. Discussions were in progress with the British shipping managers when war broke out.

Beginning of the World War.—Immediately a number of liners were requisitioned by the British Government for service as merchant cruisers, transports, and hospital ships. Freight markets were almost staggered by the unexpected blow which had fallen, and, at first, chartering of all sorts came to a standstill. Happily, the Government at once put into operation a scheme of war insurance on the lines of the recommendations of a committee which had been previously appointed and was presided over by Mr. Huth Jackson. These recommendations provided for the granting of war insurance on shipping by the Government up to 80% of the values. This insurance was worked through the mutual associations of shipowners which were in existence for the purpose of covering such liabilities as shipowners could not obtain under ordinary marine insurance policies. In the preparation of this scheme Sir Norman Hill, the secretary of the Liverpool Steamship Owners' Assn., had taken an active part. The shipping entered in the Liverpool Steamship Owners' Assn. represented 3,948,623 tons, and that in the Liverpool and London War Risks Assn., which included the great bulk of the liner tonnage of the United Kingdom, 6,371,329 tons.

There were also important associations of the same kind with headquarters in London and on the N.E. coast. The main result of putting this scheme at once into operation was that all ships could proceed on their voyages and others could leave without involving disaster to their owners if the vessels were captured or destroyed by the enemy. Had no such scheme been available, a great many vessels, if not all, must have been detained in port. Commerce would immediately have come to a stop. In those days it was the possibility of capture by the enemy's surface cruisers that was in men's minds: that was considered serious enough. The risk of destruction by the enemy's submarines had hardly been taken into account.

As a complement to this scheme for the insurance of hulls, there was also established a Government office for the insurance