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360 The strain and overwork, however, of the three years of office together with grief at the death of his only son in 191 2, had told on his constitution; and after an acute attack of gout, he died in har- ness at the Consulta on Oct. 16 1914. He was a man of wide literary, historical and artistic culture, a Dante student, and the author of several books and articles on social questions, the condi- tions of Sicily, foreign affairs, etc.; his Lettere doll' Albania are deservedly appreciated, and his geographical studies led to his being elected president of the Italian geographical society.

SAN MARINO (see 24.153), area 38 sq.m., had in 1920 a pop. of 12,069. The estimated revenue for the year ending March 31 1921 amounted to 34 million lire, derived mainly from customs ; tobacco, matches and salt monopolies; and taxes on patrimonial estates and on urban and rural lands and buildings. There is no public debt. The regents (Capilani Reggenti) exercise executive power through four principal committees nominated from the supreme "Council of Twelve," viz.: a Congresso Economico di Stato, dei Legali, degli Studi and Militare. A " treaty of good relations and friendship " with the kingdom of Italy, concluded in 1897, was re- vised and renewed in 1908, 1914 and 1920. The republic has ex- tradition treaties with England, Holland, Belgium and the United States and is represented by Consuls-General at Rome, London and Barcelona and by a charge d'affaires at Paris. England also has an accredited representative resident in Florence. During the World War, though nominally neutral, the republic took a share in providing hospital equipment for the Italian front and put no obstacle in the way of her nationals volunteering for service in the Italian army. San Marino was represented on the International Radio-telegraphic Congress of Basle (1913) and had a wireless station (receiving only) on Monte Titano but, on the entry of Italy into the war, complications arising with Germany, it was dismantled and in 1920 had not been reinstalled.

SANTAYANA, GEORGE (1863- ), American philosopher and writer, was born in Madrid, Spain, Dec. 16 1863. At the age of nine he came to America and was educated at Harvard (A.B. 1886; Ph.D. 1889), where he taught from 1889 to 1912 as instructor, assistant professor, and, after 1907, as professor of philosophy. He then retired to devote his time to literary work. In 1905 he was Hyde Lecturer at the Sorbonne. He was a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. His chief work is The Life of Reason: or the Phases of Human Prog- ress (1905-6), 5 vols., entitled respectively Reason in Common Sense; Reason in Society; Reason in Religion; Reason in Art and Reason in Science. His other writings include: Sonnets and Other Verses (1894); Lucifer, a Theological Tragedy (1899); Three Philosophical Poets (1910); Winds of Doctrine; Studies in Con- temporary Opinion (1913); Egotism in German Philosophy (1916) and Character and Opinion in the United States; with Reminis- cences of William James and Josiah Royce, and Academic Life in America (1920).

SANTO DOMINGO (see 24.194). The decade 1910-20 witnessed a succession of abrupt changes in the political status of Santo Do- mingo, accompanied by corresponding economic and social devel- opments. The civil security and material well-being ushered in by the Dominican- American Convention of 1907 came to an end with the assassination of President Ramon Caceres on Nov. 19 1911. Gen. Alfredo M. Victoria, the dominant military figure, secured the selection of his uncle Eladio Victoria as president. Revolutionary outbreaks of the traditional type followed, culmi- nating in the appointment of a special commission by the Presi- dent of the United States, to aid in the reestablishment of peace and order. Conferences resulted in the resignation of Victoria and the election of Archbishop Adolfo A. Nouel as provisional Presi- dent. Friction developed, and on March 31 1913, Monsignor Nouel resigned and embarked for Europe. The Dominican Con- gress selected as provisional successor, Gen. Jose Bordas Baldez. Revolutionary disturbances again broke out and the United States once more lent its good offices by sending a commission, with whose advisory aid Dr. Ramon Baez was selected as provisional president Aug. 27 1914. Some months later Juan Isidro Jimenez was chosen as constitutional president. A brief period of peace and progress ensued, terminated in April 1916 by an outbreak led by

Gen. Desiderio Arias (a chronic revolutionist from Monte Christi), which President Jimenez, aged and infirm, failed to check. Arias seized the military control of the capital, practically deposed Ji- menez and assumed the executive power. With another civil war thus imminent, with its patience strained by the events of the pre- ceding years, and with the international situation developed by the World War threatening foreign intervention, the United States now took definite action. Naval forces were landed. President Jimenez resigned the presidency and retired to Porto Rico, and in May-June 1916 the pacification of the country was effected with nothing more serious than minor encounters with revolutionary forces. On July 25 1916, the Dominican Congress selected Dr. Francisco Henriquez Carvajal as temporary president. The United States, refusing recognition until assured of the non-recur- rence of civil disorder, proposed a new treaty based upon the con- vention just adopted between the United States and Haiti (see HAITI), which should repair the shortcomings of the 190? conven- tion in providing for the collection of customs under American aus- pices, the appointment of an American financial adviser and the establishment of a constabulary force officered by Americans. President Henriquez refused to enter into this arrangement, with a resultant deadlock intensified by the withholding by the Ameri- can authorities of the revenues collected by its officers. Matters came to a head with Henriquez's intention not to retire from the presidency upon the expiration of his provisional term but to pre- sent himself as a probable successful candidate for popular elec- tion. OnNov. 29 1916 by proclamation of the American command- er of the forces of occupation, Santo Domingo was placed under the military administration of the United States. Executive departments were taken over by American naval officers, ex-presi- dent Henriquez left the country, order was quickly established, and Santo Domingo entered upon four years of civil quiet and economic improvement. The termination of this status was fore- shadowed Dec. 24 1920 by a proclamation of the military govern- ment that "the time has arrived when it may, with a due sense of its responsibility to the people of the Dominican Republic, inaugurate the simple processes of its rapid withdrawal from the responsibilities assumed in connexion with Dominican affairs." Announcement was made that a commission of representative Dominicans with a technical adviser was to be appointed, en- trusted with the formulation of constitutional amendments and the revision of the laws of the republic, such proposals upon approval of the military governor to be submitted to a constitutional convention and to the national congress.

The economic experience of the country in the decade reflected closely the successive political changes outlined above. Agriculture continued the mainstay of the country's life; and cacao, sugar and tobacco leaf remained its staple crops. Increased production in the years following the convention of 1907 showed arrest in 1912-4 changing to abrupt increase in 1915. With the war-induced rise in prices and the conditions born of military occupation, the upward movement in export values continued through 1920, assuming sensational proportions in the last-named year. The combined volume of imports and exports was less in 1914 than in 1911 ; but the increase in 1915 over 1914 was greater than the total exports in 1905, and the increase in 1916 over 1915 was almost as much as the combined exports and imports of 1905. The combined value of imports and exports was $105,257,117 in 1920, as compared with $61,621,019 in 1919 and $17,945,208, in 191 1. An increasing proportion of this trade has been with the United States, 77-17 % of imports and 87-03 % of exports in 1919, as compared with 59-29 and 52-31 % respectively, in 1911. In the first half of the decade political disturbances delayed the course of financial extrication ensured by the convention of 1907; but after 1916 rapid progress was made. On Dec. 31 1920, the sinking fund established for the $20,000,000 U.S. customs administration loan amounted to $11,457,373, ensuring amortization long before maturity. A loan of $1,500,000 authorized by the United States to discharge internal debts contracted in 1911-2 was finally liquidated in 1917. A further issue of $4,000,000 authorized in 1918 to liquidate and fund all outstanding internal indebtedness, as adjusted by a claims commission appointed by the military government, will be paid off by Dec. 31 1922. Economic and social conditions, although suffering from the political agitation prior to 1916, remained throughout far above the preconvention state. Since the military administration progress was notable. Roads and bridges were built, schools established, public sanitation extended, steps taken to clear up the complicated land title situation, internal taxation made effective and competence and regularity introduced in administrative service. Whether this was achieved at the expense of weakened capacity for