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other types were used by the French, many of the old single- loading " Gras " rifles of the 1874 model being adapted. 1

Mauser rifles in different calibres were used by Germany, Turkey, China, Portugal, Serbia and Brazil? The Japanese " Arisaka," or "38th Year," also has a Mauser action. Many of these rifles were purchased from Japan by Russia early in the World War and also by Great Britain for training purposes. It was reported that since the Armistice Japan has increased the calibre both in new rifles and in the existing stock from 6-5 mm. (256) to 7 mm., the reason given for the change being that the 6-5-mm. bullet is too small to develop sufficient wounding power. This calibre is used by several other nations and is the smallest used in military rifles. The change is interesting, since the ten- dency had been towards reduction of calibre.

The standard arm of the Russian infantry is the " Three line " magazine rifle, 7-62-mm. (-3-in.) calibre. A new type of ammu- nition has been adopted for this rifle, having a pointed bullet weighing 148 grains and giving 2,820 f.s. velocity with 50,000 Ib. pressure. The Russian Government also bought large quanti- ties of Winchester, model of 1895, magazine rifles of the same calibre, the only lever-action magazine-rifle used in the war.

Austria-Hungary used the 8-mm. Mannlicher, " Straight Pull " rifle, model 1895, and carbine. Mannlicher type rifles were also used by Italy, Bulgaria, Rumania and Greece. The Belgians used the magazine rifle, calibre 7-65 mm., model of 1889, which has a Mauser action. The latest ammunition for this rifle has a pointed bullet weighing 1 54 grains with a velocity of about 2,740 f.s. The Swiss Schmidt-Rubin rifle has been redesigned to chamber a new rimless cartridge having a 170- grain streamline bullet with a velocity of 2,660 f.s.

SPECIAL BOLT-ACTION RIFLES

Snipers' Rifles. Several types of rifles have been developed by the various Powers for the use of " snipers," whose function it is to pick off with single shots individual scouts, officers, men of working parties, enemy snipers, etc. Snipers work as a rule in pairs wherever feasible, one acting as an observer, the other as a rifleman. The rifle used for this purpose is usually a very carefully selected specimen of the standard service rifle, fitted with telescopic sights of low power, or some other variety of optical sights, though plain sights are some- times used. The British snipers used the short Lee-Enfield rifle with various forms of telescopic and other optical sights, and also the 1914 rifle with a special back sight. The U. S. rifle is fitted with a Warner and Swasey telescopic sight, 6-power, 4^ field, which is attached to the standard rifle by side brackets, but this combination is not en- tirely satisfactory and a new telescope and method of mounting are being developed. The German sniper's rifle was the standard Mauser with brackets fastened by screws to the top of the magazine to take aCoerz, Luxor, or Zeiss telescope, generally of 2f or 3 power. The mounting of the telescope over the bolt and magazine makes it necessary to use the rifle as a single-loader and prevents the use of the regular sights while the telescope is attached. This method is, however, preferred by riflemen as aim may be taken with the cheek against the stock in the usual manner; the superior accuracy ob- tained offsetting these disadvantages. In the German sniper's rifle the telescope can be very quickly removed from its brackets and the rifle used the ordinary way.

'The German infantry throughout the war carried the 1898 pat- tern Mauser (7-9 mm.). The cavalry carbine of the same pattern and calibre was also occasionally used by infantry as well as by cavalry serving dismounted in the trenches, and by the personnel of light machine-gun squads. During the trench-warfare period of the war, spare magazines holding 25 cartridges were designed for attachment to the underside of the ordinary magazine, in order to obtain an in- creased volume of fire for emergencies ; these were, however, clumsy and unpopular with the troops, and were not generally used. The only important modification of the standard arm was the introduc- tion in summer 1915 of a short rifle (43-5 in.) known as the Erfurt rifle. This has the same trench action, calibre, and magazine as the 1888 rifle, and, apart from the reduced length, differs from it only in having the sliding parts of the breech covered by a dustproof metal casing, the barrel cased in wood (as in the British and other short rifles) and the muzzle filled with a flash-reducing attachment. The bolt-handle is curved down close to the stock. This weapon was only issued for service in the last months of the war, but seems to have been retained as a standard weapon in the post-war army and police. Troops of older categories employed in garrison and line of commu- nication duties had the old magazine rifle of 1888 (7'9-mm. calibre).

3 The new Brazilian 7-mm. ammunition has the highest muzzle- velocity of any military small-arms ammunition, although several of the new cartridges closely approach it.

Periscopic Rifle Holders or " Sniperscopes " have been designed and used with some success, although it cannot be said that these devices were ever popular or capable of very accurate or rapid fire. The tendency when using them is to shoot high and they are only reasonably accurate at ranges up to 200 yards. In the instrument developed by the Munition Invention Department of the British Gov- ernment (fig. 3) the periscope (aa) and shoulder piece (c) are rigidly combined with each other and with a shoe (d) which takes the butt of the rifle. A trigger on the shoulder piece is connected to the rifle trigger by a cord (eee). Pivoted to the right side of the shoe is a system of levers (bbb) which enables the firer to open and close the bolt by means of a handle close to his right hand. The periscope itself is a simple mirror-periscope.

FIG. 3. Periscopic Rifle Holder (British Type).

Anti-tank Rifle. The German anti-tank rifle (fig. 4) is a single- shot calibre 13-mm. Mauser action rifle brought out as an emergency weapon 3 and intended to serve as a stop-gap pending the construc- tion of a 13-mm. machine-gun. The weapon is intended for short- range work only, as the sights are graduated to only 500 metres. It is very heavy (37 lb.)and has a total length of nearly 66 in., the barrel being 39 in. long. It is provided with a bipod. The bullet, which weighs 801 grains, is pointed and armour-piercing, has an initial velocity of about 2,450 f.s., and a penetration of 20 millimetres in the best steel is claimed at a range of 500 yards. It is, however, very heavy for a portable arm, and, being a single-shot weapon, it has a very slow rate of fire. On account of the heating of the barrel and the heavy recoil, the fire cannot be sustained for more than 20 shots at a time. Each rifle was served by two men, carrying 124 cartridges as well as the rifle and accessories and their personal armament. The rifles were used in squads of three rifles, or singly, or in cooperation with heavy machine-guns using armour-piercing bullets, according to circumstances. The Germans had a high regard for this weapon.

FIG. 4. German Anti-Tank Rifle.

High-power Rifles. Sporting rifles with an initial velocity of 3,000 f.s., or slightly more, are now in use. These rifles have no particular feature except the additional strength necessary to withstand high pressures. The so-called " explosive " effect of nigh-velocity bullets upon striking make them extremely effective for sporting purposes.

SEMI-AUTOMATIC RlFLES

As already mentioned, efforts are being made to produce a semi- automatic shoulder-rifle to replace the bolt-action rifle. The success- ful sporting weapons of this type which have been devised are not considered suitable for military use, as the powder pressures and velocities obtained from their cartridges are much below those ob- tained with military ammunition. Sporting rifles are not subjected to the severe conditions that are usually encountered by the military

3 The order for a design was given in Dec. 1917 and in spite of the manufacturing difficulties which naturally presented themselves with an arm of such unusual proportions, the Mauser works were able to begin quantity supply in April 1918 (Schwarte, Technik im Welt- kriege, p. 21). (C. F. A.)