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Rh introduced on certain Birmingham-Euston expresses. In July 1910 restaurant cars were introduced on through trains between Manchester, Birkenhead and Bournemouth, L. & N.W., G.W., and L. & S.W. railways. In July 1910 certain Midland Anglo-Scottish expresses were diverted to run over the L. & N.W.R. between Penrith and Carlisle. At the same time several Caledonian expresses to and from Aberdeen began to use Glasgow Central Station instead of Buchanan Street. In Oct. 1910 the G.W.R. introduced through trains via the Ashenden-Aynho line between Wolverhampton and Victoria, S.E. & C.R. In July 1910 the L. & S.W.R. improved their Southampton-Havre route to the European Continent. In May 1911 the S.E. & C.R. Continental service from Queenborough to Flushing was transferred to Folkestone. On June 1 1911 tea cars were introduced on the afternoon expresses between London and Manchester and Liverpool, L. & N.W.R. From July 3 1911 through carriages forming parts of S.E. & C.R. Kent Coast and other expresses were run to and from King's Cross, G.N.R. On the same date the N.E.R. introduced hourly expresses between Newcastle, Sunderland, West Hartlepool, Stockton and Middlesbrough. In March 1910 Metropolitan District trains commenced to work through over the Metropolitan railway to Uxbridge, and in June of the same year through trains between Ealing and Southend were added. In July 1913 the G.W.R. introduced the “Devon and Cornwall Special” express (third class only) between London and the West of England.

Pullman Cars.—Hitherto used only on the L.B. & S.C.R., on March 21 1910 Pullman cars were added to certain S.E. & C.R. Continental expresses via Dover, and in the following December to those via Folkestone. In June 1910 they were adopted by the Metropolitan railway on the extension line to Aylesbury. In June 1914 Pullman cars were introduced on a considerable scale by the Caledonian railway, some of them replacing first- and third-class restaurant cars, while others were available only for first-class passengers on payment of a supplement as usual. In Sept. 1915 the L.B. & S.C.R. added third-class Pullman cars to certain trains. From June 16 1919 Pullman cars were added to Folkestone and Kent Coast expresses, S.E. & C.R. In July 1921 the S.E. & C.R. added a special Pullman express, the “Thanet Limited,” between Victoria and Ramsgate Harbour on Sundays. From Nov. 11 1920 Pullman cars began to run on the G.E.R. Both first- and second-class cars now run on its Continental expresses, and first- and third-class cars on other routes.

Withdrawal of Second-Class Accommodation.—Several railways had already withdrawn second-class accommodation, partially or wholly, before 1910, but in Oct. of that year the G.W.R. discontinued provision for second-class passengers. From June 1 1911 the L.B. & S.C.R. adopted the same course; the L. & N.W.R., Cambrian, North Staffordshire, and Maryport & Carlisle from Jan. 1912, and from July 22 1918 the L. & S.W.R.

Season Tickets.—In regard to season tickets several interesting items may be referred to. In May 1910 the G.W.R. commenced to issue season tickets at stations on application. In Dec. of the same year the G.N.R. discontinued calling for deposits on season tickets, this practice being now general on most lines. From Jan. 1 1912 the Metropolitan railway issued “limited season tickets” to the wives of season-ticket holders, a corollary to the shopping tickets which had been issued from Jan. 1910, available only between 10 A.M. and 4 P.M., the first-class fares being little more than for third class.

Working Arrangements.—Several important working arrangements and agreements between leading railways were already in operation as between the L. & N.W., L. & Y. and Midland railways, and in May 1910 a similar working arrangement was entered into between the G.W. and L. & S.W. railways. In Aug. 1912 the London, Tilbury & Southend railway was taken over by the Midland company, being thereafter known as the L.T. & S. section. In Oct. of the same year the Great Northern & City railway was incorporated into the Metropolitan system, and in Nov. 1912 the City & South London and Central London railways were brought into the group controlled by the Underground Electric Railways Co. of London, Ltd. In Jan. 1915 a reorganization of the “Underground” companies, co-ordinating the several managements, was adopted. In April of the same year the Great Eastern railway adopted a reorganization of the chief departments, while the operating and commercial departments were separated as from July 1 1915.

Strikes, etc..—In Aug. 1911 there was a short strike of railwaymen which led to the appointment of a special Royal Commission. The principal result of this was the establishment of Conciliation Boards, including representatives of the respective managements, of the various grades of staff and of the Board of Trade, for the purpose of dealing with questions of pay, duties and other problems affecting railway staff. In Sept. 1911 there was a strike of Irish railwaymen. In March 1912 a coal strike entailed many difficulties upon the railways, the Great Eastern being the only large company which was able to maintain approximately full train services throughout. In Dec. of the same year there was a strike on the North-Eastern railway owing to the suspension of a driver named Knox, for alleged drunkenness, but this did not spread to any serious extent. Knox was actually fined for being drunk by the Newcastle magistrates on Oct. 26. He was off duty at the time. But eventually an inquiry by Mr. Chester Jones, the London police-magistrate, resulted in his reporting (Dec. 14) that Knox (though “not quite sober”) had not

been “drunk in the police-court sense,” and he was then reinstated. In March 1913 the National Union of Railwaymen was formed from the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, the General Railway Workers' Union, and the United Signalmen's and Pointsmen's Society. In Oct. 1913 a Royal Commission on Railways began its sittings, which were not completed at the outbreak of the war.

Railway (Accounts and Returns) Act 1911.—Commencing Jan. 1 1913, the Railway (Accounts and Returns) Act 1911 came into force, from which date the methods of preparing the annual returns of all railway companies were unified and systematized, and the previous half-yearly periods, with their Scottish variations, gave place to accounts and returns for the calendar year, providing for annual meetings in Feb. in every case. The year 1913 is the only one for which complete accounts and returns were prepared in accordance with the Act, the conditions of railway control and guarantee during and subsequent to the war having prevented later returns being presented in complete form. Indeed, during the actual war period the accounts and returns were reduced to bare essentials, and some tables are still necessarily in abeyance.

“Safety First.”—In 1914 the Great Western railway adopted systematic “Safety First” propaganda, immediately followed by the London “Underground” railways, and since that date the matter has been closely followed up by other companies, several having issued publications to their staff setting forth “Safety First” principles. On Dec. 1 1916 the London “Safety First” Council was constituted, including representatives of several railways.

Locomotive Development.—Superheating was already recognized as a desirable feature of locomotive practice in 1910, and has since become firmly established as an essential part of almost every locomotive design, including tank and shunting as well as main-line passenger and goods classes. The Schmidt and Robinson types are both widely employed, the former in the hands of the firm known as Marine & Locomotive Superheaters, Ltd., and the latter in those of the Superheater Corp., Ltd. Both have been developed, and dampers or draft retarders are now seldom employed, improved designs of release, snifting and other valves or adjuncts, or the use of a steam circulating system, being found to meet the needs of the situation. The designs mainly used in each case are the types A and B of the respective firms. Several other designs are, however, now in considerable use; Mr. G. J. Churchward's “Swindon” apparatus on the Great Western railway; Mr. G. Hughes's “top and bottom header” and “twin plug header” designs on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway; Mr. R. W. Urie's “Eastleigh” superheater on the London & South-Western railway; Mr. H. N. Gresley's “twin-tube” superheater on the Great Northern railway; Mr. R. E. L. Maunsell's special form of header (M.L.S. superheater, Type C) on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway; and Mr. E. A. Watson's design on the Great Southern & Western railway of Ireland. Mr. J. G. Robinson, of course, uses the “Robinson” pattern on the Great Central railway and his designs are largely used also on other railways. High-degree superheating is now invariably employed.

Feedwater heating is used to a limited extent on certain lines, and the Weir apparatus has been experimentally installed on several others, but the practice is still far from general. The use of oil for fuel continues to be the subject of experiment, but is still exceptional, though during the 1921 coal strike engines were adapted on many lines. Mention may be made of trials of the “Scarab” system on the L. & N.W.R. and other lines, while on the Great Central railway Mr. J. G. Robinson is stated to have obtained notable results from pulverized fuel and a “colloidal” mixture of pulverized coal and oil, also with the “Unolco” oil-burning equipment.

Recent locomotive practice tends towards the systematic adoption of the 4-6-0 type for express and ordinary passenger and fast-goods locomotives, while the 2-6-0 type has appeared on several lines for mixed-traffic duties. The former is often associated with the use of four high-pressure cylinders, and on several railways three-cylinder locomotives of various types have been placed in service, but the ordinary two-cylinder system is still the most general. Walschaert valve gear is becoming more and more widely used. On many railways large tank engines have been introduced, notably of the 4-6-2, 2-6-4, 4-4-4, 0-6-4, and 4-6-4 wheel arrangements, with 0-8-2 and 2-8-0 locomotives for heavy local goods and shunting work.

Rolling Stock.—In the carriage department there have been no special developments since 1910, though improvements in designs already in use have, of course, been made. To some extent, steel panels are being employed, and for electric rolling stock steel construction is now largely used. On the L. & Y.R. all-steel coaches are used on the Manchester-Bury electric route. To provide for rapid detraining and entraining of passengers at busy “Underground” stations, new designs of rolling stock have been adopted, including three sets of double doors on each side, one midway and the others towards, but some distance from, the ends. Steadying pillars and hand-holds are superseding the straps hitherto provided for the convenience of standing passengers. On the goods and mineral side no special developments in rolling stock need to be referred to, except that the use of high-capacity wagons up to 50 tons' capacity is extending, though as yet to a limited extent only.

Miscellaneous.—During 1910 express locomotives of the G.W. and L. & N.W. railways were exchanged for comparative trial; also