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108 became Duquesne University, and in 1920 had 2,129 students, including department of law, 86 students, and evening school of accounts and finance, 1,120 students. The Carnegie Institute in the decade increased the extent of its service to the community; its central library, with 464,313 volumes, had 8 branches, i6stations, 128 school stations, 10 club stations and 8 playground stations, with a circulation of 1,363,365 books; both the scientific museum and the art department added greatly to their collections; in the school of technology the enrolment grew from 2,102 students in 1909 to 4,982 students in 1920, including those in the departments of science and engineering, arts, industries and the Margaret Morrison school for women. The university of Pittsburgh, established in 1908 by assem- bling the scattered departments of what was the Western University of Pennsylvania, and taking over 43 ac. near the Carnegie Institute for a campus, grew rapidly in its new location, and in 1920 numbered 4,979 students. In the same year there were in the city 227 social, health, religious and welfare agencies.

After careful study of playground systems a bond issue of J8oo,ooo was voted (1919) to initiate'a constructive development of parks and playgrounds at public expense. Another civic improvement was the plan that a permanent committee of citizens should be engaged in the solving of the housing problem, and that the chamber of com- merce, cooperating with the state, should employ a director in charge of the Americanization programme in which the public schools and corporations cooperate. The Society for the Improvement of the Poor, constructed and opened (1921) the Wayfaring hotel to accom- modate 500 men. The 20 hospitals, modern in construction and equipment, with 4,500 beds, included special hospitals for children, eye and ear, maternity, tuberculosis, and contagious diseases. The Magee hospital, established by legacy of 83,500,000 under will of the late C. L. Magee, by agreement the maternity hospital of the university of Pittsburgh, is perhaps the most modern and complete maternity hospital in America. (S. B. Me.)

PIUS X. [GIUSEPPE SARTO] (1835-1914), Pope (see 21.600), died Aug. 20 1914. Although the pontificate of Pius X. lasted only ii years (Aug. 4 1903 Aug. 20 1914), it has been said that his work for the Church, reconstructive and reformative, sur- passed that of any of his predecessors since the days of Sixtus V., who died in 1590. In the defence of the Faith, his condemnation of the 65 propositions of Modernism in 1007 will rank in Catho- lic theology as a parallel to the condemnation of the 68 proposi- tions of Molinism by Innocent XI. in 1637 or the 101 propo- sitions of Jansenism condemned by Clement XI. in 1713. The activity of the pontificate may be judged by the fact that its output of papal Bulls and greater official papal documents (counting only those published) exceeded 3,322. These bear upon undertakings and reforms of the first importance the codification of canon law; the protection of the liberty of the Conclave by the abolition of the Exclusiva; the simplification and security of the conditions of marriage by the Ne Temere legislation; the restoration of the Rota as the supreme Court of Appeal; the regulation of the triennial or quinquennial visits of bishops to Rome; the legislation as to Church music; and the decree as to First Communion, and the encouragement of inter- national eucharistic congresses; the reform of the Roman bre- viary; the founding of the biblical institute for the work of Scriptural research; the regulation of studies in the seminaries; the creation of the commission for the great work of editing the true text of the Vulgate; the reconstruction of the official machinery of the Roman Curia ; the transfer of the English-speak- ing countries from the propaganda or missionary regime to the normal government of the Church. To these may be added in the domain of discipline the unflinching vindication by Pius X. of the Church's right to depose delinquent bishops, carried out even at the cost of rupture of diplomatic relations with France; an apostolic visitation rigorously carried out through the dioceses of Italy, resulting in four bishops being caused to resign on account of neglect or inefficiency; a further regulation by which no one can be proposed for a bishopric unless his promo- tion receives the visa of the Holy Office, which means that his past life has been free from ecclesiastical censure or reproach.

The well-known personal characteristics of Pius X. were his piety, charity, deep humility, simplicity, pastoral zeal, combined with great charm of manner to all who approached him. For war he had nothing but Horror and it was the shock of the outbreak of the World War that hastened his death. It is said that one of his last acts was to refuse the request of the Austrian Em- peror to bless his soldiers, saying, " I do not bless war: I bless peace." (J. Mo.*)

PIUS XI. [ACHILLE RATTI], elected Pope on Feb. 6 1922 at the Conclave following the death of Benedict XV., was born May 30 1857, at Desio, near Milan. He came of a middle-class Italian family, his father, Francesco Ratti, being manager of a textile factory. Achille was the third of six children, and was educated for the priesthood at the seminary of Milan and the Lombard College in Rome, becoming deacon in 1877 and priest in 1879. Devoting himself to study, he took doctorates in phil- osophy, theology and canon law in Rome, and in 1882 became a teacher in the major seminary at Milan. In 1888 he was chosen one of the college of doctors of the Ambrosiana Library in Milan, where he worked assiduously, becoming librarian in 1907, and attaining so high a reputation as a scholar that in 1910 he was also appointed by Pius X. vice-prefect of the Vatican Library. He was prefect of the Vatican Library from 1913 to 1918, and in this capacity was made a monsignor. During the war years his exceptional gifts as a diplomatist impressed themselves on Benedict XV., who, in the spring of 1918, sent him as Papal Nuncio to Poland, where his success led to still further dis- tinctions. In June 1919 he was created Archbishop of Lepanto, in April 1921 Archbishop of Milan, and in June 1921 cardinal.

PLENER, ERNST, FREIHERR VON (1841- ), Austrian statesman, was born on Oct. 18 1841 at Eger in Bohemia, the son of the excellent Austrian statesman Ignaz von Plener (1810-1908). He began his diplomatic career in 1865, and served in the Paris and London embassies until 1873. In the latter year he was elected by the Chamber of Commerce of his native place to the Chamber of Deputies of the Reichsrat, where he was soon reckoned among the most conspicuous members of the Constitutional party. In the Taaffe period (1879-93) h fi w &s one of the leaders, and from 1888 the acknowledged head of the German-Liberals in their struggles against the Slav-Conservative majority in the Chamber. Consequently he represented German- ism on the nationalities question, but was not averse to con- cessions compatible with the maintenance throughout the whole monarchy of the position due to the German Austrians. He sought to compromise the quarrel between Germans and Czechs, and the so-called " points " of 1890, a summary of the bases for a German-Czech understanding, were essentially his work. In the Windischgratz Coalition Ministry (1893-95), Plener took over the portfolio of Finance. Soon after his retirement from the Finance Ministry, Plener was appointed president of the Supreme Audit Department (Obersle Rechnungshof). He became a member of the Upper House in 1900.

Plener wrote a series of economic and political works, among others Die Englische Fabriksgesetzgebung (1871) ; Rnglische Baugenos- senschaften (1873). His speeches were published by his friends in 1911. He himself published Erinnerungen (3 vols., 1911-21).

(A. F. PR.) PLUMER, HERBERT CHARLES ONSLOW PLUMER, 1ST BARON (1857- ), British field marshal, was born March 18 1857, and entered the army in 1876. He served on the Red Sea Littoral in 1884, and in 1896 commanded a mounted regiment in the Matabele Campaign, for which he was promoted brevet lieutenant-colonel. Before the outbreak of the South African War in 1899 he was sent out to the Cape on special service, and he raised the Rhodesian field force, which he commanded during the early months of the contest. He assisted in the relief of Mafeking, and was promoted colonel, appointed A.D.C. to the Queen, and given the C.B. In the later stages he was constantly in command of a column or a group of columns, and he was promoted major-general on the conclusion of hostilities. He commanded a brigade at home from 1902-4 and was then appointed quartermaster-general at headquarters, a position which he vacated at the end of 1905; shortly afterwards he was appointed commander of the 5th Division. He was promoted lieutenant-general in 1908 and in 1911 was placed in charge of the Northern Command.

In May 1915 Sir Herbert Plumer was selected to lead the II. Army on the western front, and shortly afterwards he was promoted general. His army was not very actively engaged during the remainder of 1915, nor yet in 1916, in which year he was given the G.C.M.G. for his services. But on June 7 1917