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France since IQIO, etc. Certain other countries have also for some time applied this principle to special classes, as, for example, Austria, Hungary and Belgium to miners; while State or other public subsidies have been granted in aid of voluntary insurance or savings it, France, Belgium, Denmark, Italy and Spain. The more recent developments have been as follows:

France. -The French Finance Act, 1912, amended in certain re- spects the provisions of the law of April 1910 relating to compulsory insurance against old age and infirmity, the principal amendments being that, while in the law as originally passed the State added to the annuity purchased by the insured person 2 8s. per annum on his attaining the age of 65, the new law raised the State addition to 4 per annum, and provided for its payment from the age of 60. The Act of June 1894, in which the principle of compulsory insurance against infirmity and old age was applied to French miners, was amended in Feb. 1914, as to the State contribution, the administra- tion of the funds, etc. Further amendments were introduced by a law passed in March 1920, the main provisions of this new law being the allocation of higher subventions towards the pensions granted to miners or their widows.

Belgium. A law of June 1911 prescribed that all workpeople em-

loyed in coal-mining in Belgium must be insured in the National uperannuation Fund. A law dated May 1912 has for its object the promotion by State subsidies of recognized associations and friendly societies who grant benefits to their members suffering from illnesses of a chronic nature or from premature infirmity. It is stated that a general old age pension law is contemplated.

Italy. In conformity with a law promulgated in Italy in June 1913, a Seamen's Old Age and Infirmity Fund was formed by the amalgamation of existing institutions having similar objects. As regards ships' crews, the principle of compulsory contributions was already in operation under a law of July 1861, but the obligation im- posed by the later law upon shipowners introduced a new principle in Italian legislation on this subject. As from Jan. I 1920, a scheme was introduced in Italy under which insurance against disability, resulting either from sickness or accident, and old age became obligatory (with certain specified exceptions) on (i) all Italian sub- jects of both sexes between the ages of 15 and 65 working for an employer in any industry, trade or profession, agriculture and the public services, or occupied in domestic service or in any private employment, and (2) foreigners' working at the same occupations who, however, receive full benefits only if reciprocal treatment is granted to Italians employed in their countries.

In Germany an Imperial law of June 1916 reduced the age of eligibility for an old age pension from 70 to 65; laws of Dec. 1919 extended compulsory insurance against infirmity and old age to certain new classes of workpeople.

In Holland provision was made for the institution of national schemes for compulsory insurance against sickness, infirmity and old age by a series of three Acts dated June 1913.

In Sweden a law dated June 1913 introduced a national scheme of compulsory insurance against old age and infirmity.

In Spain provision for the creation of deferred life annuities on a contributory and State-aided basis was made by the law of Feb. 1908. This Act, however, was of a permissive nature. A royal decree was issued in March 1919, making insurance against old age compulsory for all wage-earners between the ages of 1 6 and 65 whose total annual income does not exceed 160.

Sickness and Accident Insurance. Compulsory insurance against sickness and accident has been applied in a number of countries, for example in Germany (1883), Austria (1888), Hungary (1891), United Kingdom (1911), etc., but the range of occupations covered by the various schemes varies considerably. In a number of other countries (e.g. Sweden) the sick funds recognized by the State receive State subsidies. The principal developments in recent years are as follows:

Italy. Legislation in respect of compulsory accident insurance in Italy dates from 1898; a consolidated text was promulgated in Jan. 1904 embodying all the amendments up to that date. For the most part agricultural workers in Italy were excluded, but, by a decree of Aug. 1917, the principle of compulsory insurance against accidents was extended to agricultural workers generally. Reference has been made above to the general scheme for compulsory insurance against sickness or accident and old age, introduced in Italy as from the beginning of 1920.

Switzerland. A new law in Switzerland on insurance against sickness and accidents, passed in June 1911, was accepted by Na- tional Referendum in Feb. 1912. The sickness insurance scheme is a system of Federal State grants to recognized sick funds conducted on a mutual basis. Generally the insurance is voluntary, but the cantonal governments may, subject to the approval of the Federal Government, (a) declare it obligatory either for all persons or for certain specified classes; (6) establish public sick funds, while having due regard to funds already in existence; and (c) compel .the em- ployers to see that the premiums of their employees compulsorily

insured in such public funds are paid. (The power to compel the employers themselves to contribute is, however, expressly withheld from the cantons.) These powers may be delegated by the cantonal governments to their communes. Under the second part of the law provision is made for a system of compulsory insurance against accidents, which, in certain respects, involves a notable departure as compared with schemes of compulsory accident insurance hitherto enacted in other countries. In the first place, the principle of com- pulsion is not confined to " occupational " but also extends to " non- occupational " accidents. In the second place, the State defrays part of the premiums for insurance, and it does so not only for those coming under the compulsory provisions of the law, but also for those voluntarily insured through the National Insurance Fund which the Act sets up. Those for whom the law declares insurance against accidents, whether " occupational " or not, to be obligatory, com- prise all persons employed in Switzerland for a wage or salary in factories, workshops, mines, building, and transport by land or water (including the postal service).

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Workmen's Compensation. Compensation for industrial acci- dents was established in Germany in 1884, in Austria in 1887, and Norway followed in 1894. The development of legislation providing for workmen's compensation for industrial accidents in Europe and throughout the world has been extremely rapid. Recent legislation (whether of compensation or insurance) recognizes the principles of compensation as distinguished from fhe older idea of employers' liability.

For ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION in labour disputes, see the article under that heading.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The monthly Labour Gazette and the quarterly Labour Overseas, published by the Ministry of Labour in Great Britain, contain valuable information ; there are also official publica- tions issued by the appropriate Government Departments in other countries, notably the Bulletins of the United States Department of Labor, which Department has published a number of special reports on such subjects as Workmen's Compensation, Child Labour Legislation, etc. Among unofficial books, reference may be made to A Handbook of Industrial Law by J. H. Greenwood, and Industrial Law by F. Tillyard. (H. J. W.)

UNITED STATES

During the decade 1910-20 there was a remarkable develop- ment of labour legislation in the United States. Within these years were enacted, by the Federal and state Governments, statutes dealing with workmen's compensation, minimum wage, health and safety, hours of labour, vocational education and employment service. Even more significant was the creation by several states of industrial commissions with power to issue rules and regulations having the force of law and thus relieving the Legislature of a mass of technical details. It was a period also of distinct forward movement in the field of judicial interpreta- tion, particularly with regard to the police power in the applica- tion of the principles of " public benefit " and " equal protection of the laws " as first stated in the case of H olden v. Hardy (18 Sup. Ct. 383, 1898). _

Individual Bargaining. Since the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery, there has been a steady develop- ment of laws designed to equalize bargaining power between employer and employee. Laws dealing with labour as debtor and as creditor have included such subjects as contract labour, the padrone system, wage exemptions, assignment of wages, time of payment, place of payment, basis of payment, medium of payment, deductions, mechanics' liens and wage preference.

Seamen. Until 1914 seamen were considered in a different class from other employees and with them enforced contracts were permitted. The Seamen's Act of 1915, however, abolished arrest and imprisonment as a penalty for desertion and stipulated that it should be unlawful in any case to pay seamen wages in advance or to pay any person for the shipment of seamen when payment is deducted from seamen's wages. It permits forfeiture of one month's pay for quitting the vessel without leave after arrival at the port of delivery and before she is placed in security. The law also reg- ulates the nature of the contract, the term of service, the payment and assignment of wages, advance payments and credits, the regulation of sailors' lodging-houses, of shipping masters, quarters on board ship, rations and other details.

Service and Rent. -Another important group of laws which fall under the classification of medium of payment are those dealing with company houses and labour camps. Since it is legal for an employer to require his workmen to occupy company houses and to deduct the rent from wages, there is here an opportunity for