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wild destruction at sea and on land and of the ruthlessness of the methods employed generally have been so disastrous to all concerned that progress in the future is likely to tend to such a reaction as will bring the conduct of war more closely than ever within the restrictions enforced by international law.

The World War was one of general destruction, not confined to combatant forces but directed against every form of non- combatant energy and activity, commerce, industry, innocent and guilty alike, women and children as well as men. A hope is warranted that its hardships may have some effect on the prac- tice of civilized States in the future. At any rate it may produce a reaction in favour of older and more humane practices.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. J.W. Garner (professor of political science in the university of Illinois), International Law and the World War (2 vols., 1920) ; Walther Schucking, Nach dem Weltkrieg Schriften zur Neuorientirung der Auswdrtigen Politik; Internationale Rechtsgaran- tien Ausbau und Sickening der zwischenstaatlichen Beziehungen (Leipzig 1917); Die Volkerrechtliche Lehre des Weltkrieges (Leipzig 1918); Matthias Erzberger, Der Volkerbund Der Weg zum Frieden (Berlin 1918) ; Sir Thomas Barclay (vice-president of the Institute of International Law), Law and Usage of War (1914) ; New Methods of Adjusting International Disputes arid the Future (1917); Inter- national Law and Practice (1917); with appendices containing the Hague Conventions of 1907 compared with those of 1899, the De- claration of London of 1909 with Draft Committee's Report, in the form of notes, and a translation into English of the Oxford Manual on Naval War adopted by the Institute of International Law at its session of 1913, and full index to all the documents; Collapse and Reconstruction (1919); Alfred Frachen, Les opinions allemandes stir la reconstruction du Droit International (1921), containing an ex- haustive and not unfriendly examination of Professors Schiicking's and Quidd's and Herr Erzberger's views concerning the prospects of international law in the immediate future; A. Alvarez, La grande guerre Europeene et la Mentalite du Chili (Paris 1915); Le Droit International de I'avenir (Washington 1916); J. Bartheiemy, Le droit public en temps de guerre (Paris 1915) ; T. Baty, Prize Law and continuous voyage (1915); Grotius Society's publications on Prob- lems of the War (London 1916-9); Yves Guyot, Les causes et les

consequences de la guerre (Paris 1915); D. J. Hill, The Rebuilding of Europe (New York 1917); C. H. Huberich and R. King, The Devel- opment of German Prize Law (New York 1918); D. J. Jitta, The

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Renovation of International Law (The Hague 1919); L. Le Fur, Des represailles en temps de guerre (Paris 1919); T. Niemeyer, Privat- Eigenthum im Seekriege (Munich 1915); O. Nippold, Die Gestaltung des Volkerrechts nach dem Weltkriege (Zurich 1917); P. Otlet, Prob- lemes International et la guerre (Geneva 1916); A. Fillet, La guerre actuelle et le droit des gens (Paris 1916) ; J. Brown Scott, A survey of International Relations between the United States and Germany (New York 1917); E. C. Stowell and H. F. Munro, International Cases (2 vols., Boston 1916); H. Triepel, Die Freiheit der Meere und der Kunftige Friedenschluss (Berlin 1917); H. Wehberg, Das Seekriegs- recht (Berlin 1915). (T. BA.)

INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE. International scientific organ- izations and conventions may be divided into four groups according to their subjects and methods of procedure. Some are intended to establish uniformity in the standards of measure- ments, others to advance science by cooperation, and others, again, merely to encourage personal interchange of opinion. The second group, having scientific progress for its direct objec- tive, may be further subdivided into two, according as the coop- eration is essential to secure necessary observations in different parts of the world, or is only helpful by promoting coordination and therefore economy of labour.

In the years before the World War, it was customary, for scientific purposes, to form a new international body whenever the need arose a procedure which was natural and effective so long as each subject could be treated separately without rela- tion to others. The disadvantages of an almost indefinite multi- plication of independent bodies dealing with mutually con- nected subjects had, however, become apparent, and as the World War was nearing its end, efforts were made to organize international cooperation in scientific research on a better basis.

The following list (probably not complete) of the international bodies that were in existence at the outbreak of war in 1914 will give an idea of the range of subjects covered:

GROUP I. Agreements on standards and methods of observation:

1. Commission Metrique Internationale, and Bureau Inter- national des Poids et Mesures.

2. International Committee of Electrical Units and Standards.

3. International Electro- Technical Committee.

4. International Association for Testing Materials.

5. International Committee on Atomic Weights.

6. Comite International pour la Publication annuelle de Table de Constantes Physico-chimiques.

7. Commission on Illumination.

8. Conferences Internationales des EphiSmeVides Astronomiqu

9. International Meteorological Committee.

10. International Solar Union (see also Group II., 7).

11. International Telegraphic Union.

12. Agreements on Radio-telegraphy.

13. Bureau International de 1'Heure.

GROUP II. Associations formed for the purpose of investigatin scientific problems in which cooperation between different nations considered desirable:

1. Geodetic Association.

2. Association of Seismology.

3. Interchange of News concerning Astronomical Occurrences.

4. International Agriculture Institute.

5. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea.

6. Marey Institute.

7. Solar Union (see also Group I., 10).

8. Scientific Sub-Committees of the International Meteorologi- cal Committee.

9. International Committee for the Investigation of the Brain. GROUP III. Distribution of work bearing on the same problem fa

the purpose of economizing time and expenditure:

1. Astrographic Chart.

2. Carte Internationale du Monde au Millionieme.

3. International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.

GROUP IV. Periodic International Congresses serving mainly fot friendly interchange of views:

1. Mathematics.

2. Chemical Societies.

3. Applied Chemistry.

4. Mining, Metallurgy, Engineering and Economic Geology.

5. Radio-Activity.

6. Botany.

7. Geology.

8. Zoology.

9. Entomology.

10. Ornithology.

11. Physiology.

12. Anatomy.

13. Anthropology.

14. Medicine. '5- Hygiene.

16. Cancer Research.

17. Medical Radiology.

18. Geography.

An effort, emanating from Belgium, had been to centr all international undertakings, and an " Office Central de Institutions Internationales " was established at Brussels. On of the publications of this office, which received no genera recognition, gives what purports to be a complete list of international congresses, unions and associations. Their tola number is 279, but many of them were of a social or sen political or trade character. Among those referring to scienc the following are not already included in the above list:

1. Association Internationale des Catholiques pour le Pro de la Science.

2. Alliance Scientifique Universelle.

3. Office International de Documentation A^ronautique.

4. Commission Permanente du Repertoire Bibliographique International des Sciences Math6matiques.

5. Institut International de Statistique.

6. Comite Maritime International.

7. Comite Juridique International de 1'Ayiation.

8. Association Internationale d' Agronomic tropicale.

9. Commission Internationale pour 1'Enseignement des Sciences Mathematiques.

10. Association Internationale pour Promouvoir 1'Etude des Quaternions.

1 1 . Association Internationale des Chimistes des Industries de Cuir.

12. Commission Internationale pour I'Etude de la Question 1'Unification des M6thpdcs d'Analysis des Denrees alimentaires.

13. Bureau International d'Ethnographie.

14. Association Internationale des Botanistes.

15. Comit6 Ornithologique International.

1 6. Association Internationale des Anatomistes.

17. Commission Internationale Permanente de Determination des Phenomenes psycho-biologiques et socio-biologiques.

1 8. Office International d'Hygiene Publique.

19. International Sanitary Bureau.

20. Secretariat International pour 1'Unification des Pharma- copees.