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Dutch industry in the first half of the igth century prevented the rise of a strong labour movement. It is not until the 'seventies that one finds the beginning of a real trade organization, and even then the movement developed very slowly, largely because of divisions among the workers. Attempts to combine all workers in one trade, without distinction of political or religious faith and afterwards to organize the various trade unions into one central body, failed. As soon as socialistic tendencies appeared in the labour movement, the denominational workers broke away. The consequence was that five central organizations were established: (l) the Dutch Labour Secretariat, founded in 1893, the members of which are revolutionary socialistic or anarchistically inclined ; (2) the Dutch Trade Federation, of 1905, which is under social democratic influ- ence; (3) the (Protestant) Christian National Trade Federation, founded in 1908; (4) the Roman Catholic Trade Organization Bureau, formed in 1909; and (5) the Dutch Federation of Neutral Trade Unions, founded in 1912 with the aim of uniting the workers of the various political or religious creeds; but which has really become an organization of those who, politically, are liberal or radical. It combined in 1919 with the Central Committee of Neutral Trade Unions as the General Dutch Trade Federation.

The following figures show the development and importance of these various central bodies. The Dutch Labour Secretariat had- in 1895, 15,728 members; in 1900, 12,444; m March 1903 (great rail- way strike), 17,602; in Dec. 1908, 8,000; in 1910, 3,454. Then ensued a reorganization and the adoption of more moderate tactics and in 1915, the membership was 9,242; in 1918, 23,068; in April 1920, 50,140. Again a decline followed; in Jan. 1921 the membership was 36,038. The Dutch Trade Federation had a membership on Jan. I 1906, of 18,900; Jan. I 1912, 52,235; Jan. I 1915, 87,611; April I

1919, 207,512; April 1920, 262,116. Later the figures declined to 225,367 in Jan. 1921. The Christian National Trade Federation had on Jan. I 1910, 6,580 members gradually amounting to 76,488 on Jan. I 1921. The Roman Catholic Trade Organization Bureau Oct. I 1909, had 9,356 members, rising steadily to 158,222 in Oct.

1920. The General Dutch Trade Federation, after the fusion, had about 48,000 members rising to 51,913 in Jan. 1921.

In Jan. 1921, therefore, these five great labour bodies included 550,000 workers. Outside these there were still a number of smaller organizations but the tendency towards centralization was becoming continually stronger: in 1913, 53-66; in 1918, 77-87; in 1920, 87-53 % of all organized workers had joined these greater organizations and the percentage was still rising.

In the meantime there remained a considerable number of workers who were not organized at all, but a zealous propaganda from various sides unceasingly brought new organizations into existence.

Two factors contributing to the growth and the centralization of the Labour Movement were the collective workers' contracts and the unemployment insurance. With regard to the former, there already existed in 1920, 935 of these agreements which embraced about 22,500 undertakings (1911 ; 1,100) and over 273,600 workmen (1911; 2,300). From the Catholic side there is a tendency to go still further, aiming at a system of trade councils which would unite the organized employers with the organized workmen.

Insurance against unemployment was steadily extending. While in 1911 only 504 organizations possessed an unemployment fund, this number had risen in 1920 to 4,535. There was an especially large increase after the .Government, under the stress of circum- stances due to the war, decided to subsidize the unemployment funds by adding 100% to the workmen's own contributions while leaving the management of the funds to the workers, although it exercised a certain measure of control. The number of workpeople insured against unemployment, which in 1911 was only 43,601 and in 1914 was 70,481, had risen in 1920 to 397,900.

Cooperation.- Consumers' cooperation is, in the Netherlands, chiefly concentrated in the Dutch Cooperative Union, the Union of Dutch Workers' Cooperations and the Union of Roman Catholic Cooperative Societies, together including about 380 societies with 200,000 members. During the last few years before 1921 a great extension took place in the Cooperative Wholesale Society, De Handelskamer," which originally acted as a commission agent, but gradually established its own warehouses, and continually brought more of its own wares, with its own special mark, into the market. It possessed also its own soap factory, a factory for wooden shoes, a corn-mill, etc. It embraced in 1917 about 270 societies with about 170,000 members. The return was then in the difficult years of the war 10,000,000 guilders, but afterwards somewhat decreased.

Agricultural cooperation is much more strongly developed. The Dutch Farmers' Union, established in 1896, is the central organiza- tion of the farmers' unions existing in every province, embracing nearly 1,700 local societies with about 200,000 members. In 1913 the various farmers' unions bought cooperatively to the value of o ver 3,000,000, that is, on an average, about 57 guilders per acre. Soon after there arose a need of centralization in purchasing, and the Central bureau for the purchase of agricultural necessaries was established at Enschede.

In market gardening also, cooperation progressed quickly. The Dutch Market Gardening Council included in 1918 351 societies with 65,700 members.

Cooperation in dairy produce is of great importance. In 1879 the

first butter factory was established and in 1886 the opposition of the farmers to the machine-made butter industry in Friesland had so far decreased that the first cooperative butter factory could be established at Warga. Twenty years later there existed 749 coopera- tive factories (304 of which worked with hand-power) against 226 non-cooperative factories, and 175 cooperative cheese factories against 97 non-cooperative. Again ten years later the industry proved more concentrated, and the figures for butter were 602 (115 with hand-power) and 282 ; for cheese 236 and 101. The cooperative dairy produce factories, at first provincially organized, combined in the Federative Dutch Dairy Union, which also founded a Central Sale department. In 1917 nearly 10,000,000 kg. of butter were sold directly through this department ; the associated factories produced in that year over 1,370,000,000 kg. Through their strict control the dairy produce cooperative factories have had a very favourable influence on the quality of the product.

In the Netherlands agricultural credit is regulated on an entirely cooperative basis through three central bodies, viz. the Coopera- tive Raiffeisenbank at Utrecht, the Cooperative Central Farmers' Loan Bank at Eindhoven and the Cooperative Central Agricultural and Market Gardening Bank at Alkmaar, which together include over 1,000 local banks with over 92,000 members. Besides these three great organizations there are also a large number of smaller cooperative banks for agriculture and market gardening and for the middle classes. With the exception of the dairy produce business productive cooperation has had little success.

Education. The conflict over the schools, which had dominated the political life of the Netherlands for almost three-quarters of a century, closed in 1917 with the complete victory of the church parties. The Constitution of 1848 had granted the right to give private instruction, but had made public undenominational instruc- tion exclusively " an object of the permanent care " of the Govern- ment. Accordingly, the public funds provided for undenomina- tional education. The advocates of denominational education had to pay for that education with their own means, while helping, as tax payers, to support schools which they did not want for their children and which they regarded as pernicious in principle. The undenominational school, with its obligation to respect in its curricu- lum the religious convictions of everyone, was considered by the parties of the Left suitable for children of every confession. Gradu- ally, however, these parties also cooperated in granting higher and higher subsidies to private schools. There was also a desire to end the conflict in order to devote more energy to the improvement of education generally. In 1917 a modification in the constitution prescribed that education generally, i.e. not merely public instruc- tion, was to be an object of the uninterrupted care of the Govern- ment. By this change denominational schools were accorded the same rights as the undenominational. As a result a financial arrange- ment was made in 1919 which benefited them in equal degree.

On the basis of the new article in the fundamental code a new Elementary Education Act came into force in Jan. I 1921. But whether the " school war " is ended for good and all was open to question. Rather the scene of war was changed : it was transferred to the commune. It was expected that many " public " schools, especially in smaller places, would disappear, and that the number of small private denominational schools would be augmented and the cost of elementary education consequently increased, thereby impeding the improvement of education. Denominational educa- tion of a secondary character and as preparatory to advanced study, though it was not yet placed on an equal footing with "public" instruction of the same character as had been done in the case of elementary education, received nevertheless public assistance.

As a whole, Dutch education in all branches stands on a high plane. Compulsory elementary schooling, which was introduced in 1901 (6-12 years), was in 1921 increased to seven consecutive years of instruction (613). To this two years may be added. After the sixth year, too, there is considerable opportunity for extended ele- mentary education which lasts three -years and may comprise modern languages and mathematics. Preparation for advanced technical and commercial instruction is given in the higher middle- class schools and commercial schools, while the " gymnasia " (grammar schools) prepare for the universities. In addition there is extensive technical or trade instruction.

The care of education, which had previously been entrusted to the Ministry of the Interior, was transferred in 1919 to a special Depart- ment of Education, Arts and Sciences. As adviser to the minister a Council of Education was appointed.

The growth of primary education is shown in the following figures. The children attending " public " schools numbered in 1875 386,293; in 1919 575,369; those in private schools numbered in 1875 123,400, and in 1919 432,197. In the latter year there were 3,401 "public" and 2,439 private schools. The results are shown by the percentage of illiterates, which has fallen to 0-2-0-4 P er cent.

Between the years 1910 and 1918 the number of higher middle- class schools for boys rose from 85 to 1 1 1 and for girls from 16 to 28. The number of boys attending increased from 10,844 to '5,497 an d of girls from 4,097 to 7,587. Numerous communes also have com- mercial schools. In 1910 there were ,50 public and 35 private gymna- sia, the corresponding figures for 1918 being 34 and 41. The pupils increased in number from 5,373 to 7,552.