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Rh See H. F. Reeve, The Gambia (London 1912), an excellent mono- graph by a retired official ; Sir G. Denton, " Twenty-three Years in Lagos and the Gambia," Jnl. African Soc., vol.xi. (1912) ; The Gambia (a British Foreign Office handbook, 1920) and the Annual Reports issued by the Colonial Office, London. Full statistics are given in the Blue Book issued yearly at Bathurst. (F. R. C.)

GANDHI, MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND (1860- ), Indian political leader, a member of the bania, or trading and money-lending caste, was born at Porbandar, in Western India, where his father was for twenty-five years Dewan, or chief minister, of the State. He proceeded to England in 1888 and was called to the bar at the Inner Temple. After practising for. eighteen months at Rajkot in Kathiawar, he went to South Africa in 1893. Here he placed himself at the head of the Indian com- munity and organized a campaign of "passive resistance" against various measures of anti-Asiatic legislation. As a result of the inevitable collision with the authorities which ensued he underwent a term of imprisonment. At that time he held that it would be a calamity to sever the connexion between England and India, and during the Boer War he volunteered for service with a corps of Indian stretcher-bearers. In Dec. 1914 he re- turned to India and in 1916 opened an asram, or retreat, at Ahmedabad in the Bombay Presidency. During the lifetime of G. K. Gokhale he remained under his moderating influence; but after his death in Feb. 1915, he became wholly obsessed by the teachings of Tolstoy, to which he had been attached in early life and which he now grafted upon those of the Bhagavadgita. Tolstoy's " letter to a Hindu " (written on Dec. 14 1908) was not actually addressed to him, but it contains all the essential features of the " non-cooperation " agitation which was initiated by him after the passing of the Rowlatt Act in the autumn of 1918, and which was one of the prime factors in the Punjab disturbances of April 1919. The object of Satyagraha, or " civil disobedience," which inculcates abstinence from all forms of active association with British rule and an attitude of hostility towards Western civilization in general, is to compel the grant of " swaraj," or full self-government. In Aug. 1920 Mr. Gandhi announced that success would be attained in a year, provided that an " indissoluble union " was brought about between Hindus and Mohammedans and a " conscious volun- tary effort " was made by the masses in the matter of treating the " untouchable " castes as " blood brothers " (Freedom's Battle, 1921). In neither direction was appreciable progress achieved, although Mr. Gandhi, in order to "buy the friend- ship " of the Mussulmans " at a critical time in their history " (ibid.), identified himself with the extreme wing of the Khilafat movement, which demanded the restoration of the Turkish Empire to the status quo ante bellttm. Complete failure mean- while attended a systematic attempt to wreck the first elections held in the autumn of 1920 under the Montagu-Chelmsford reform scheme. Mr. Gandhi's austere asceticism earned for him the title of " Mahatma " and a reputation for the possession of supernatural powers. His own sincerity, it may be noted, was not impugned, but his visionary gospel of " soul force " as opposed to brute force was brought into discredit by the violent and unscrupulous methods adopted by his followers and by the strong anti-British flavour which their propaganda assumed.

See J. J. Doke, M. K. Gandhi: an Indian patriot in S. Africa (1909); Freedom's Battle (collected speeches: Madras, 1921). GARDNER, PERCY (1846- ), English classical archaeologist (see 11.462), published subsequently to 1911 Principles of Greek Art (1913); The Ephesian Gospel (1915); History of Ancient Courage (1918) ; and Evolution in Christian Ethics (1918).

His brother, ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER (1862- ), became during the World War a lieutenant-commander, R.N.V.R., worked in the historical section of the British Foreign Office, and was awarded the gold cross of the Greek Order of the Redeemer in 1918. GARFIELD, HARRY AUGUSTUS (1863- ), American educator, son of James A. Garfield, 2oth president of the U.S., was born at Hiram, O., Oct. n 1863. After graduating from Williams College in 1885, he taught for a year in St. Paul's school, Concord, N.H., and from 1888 to 1903 practised law in Cleveland. He was professor of contracts in the Law school of Western Reserve University from 1891 to 1897; helped to organize, in 1896, the municipal association of Cleveland; and served as president of the Cleveland chamber of commerce, 1908-9. He was professor of politics at Princeton University from 1903 to 1908 and in the latter year became president of Williams College. In Aug. 1917 he was appointed Federal fuel administrator by President Wilson. His duty' was to conserve the coal supply and keep the price within reasonable bounds. Local committees were appointed throughout the country to study local conditions and their reports formed the basis for the prices fixed in different localities. The ensuing winter was unusually severe, and serious shortage of coal threatened. This led to his issuing his " idle Mondays " order in Jan. 1918, closing non-essential industries for five consecutive days begin- ning Jan. 18 and on every Monday thereafter up to March 25. This roused a storm of protest from many manufacturers; and the U.S. Senate voted a resolution, requesting postponement, but this reached him after the order had been signed. On Feb. 14, however, the order was suspended and priority for certain ship- ments substituted. He disapproved of the method of settling the coal strike in Dec. 1919 and resigned his office, resuming that of president of Williams College. GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE (1879- ), Italian general, eldest son of Gen. Ricciotti Garibaldi and grandson of the Liberator, was born at Melbourne July 29 1879. He fought under his father in the Greco-Turkish War in 1897, and also served in the South African War. In 1904 he went to Venezuela and fought in the insurrection against President Castro. He was imprisoned and condemned to death, but escaped. In 1905 he was employed in London in making arrangements for the settlement of Italian colonists in Australia. From 1907 to 1909 he worked in the Panama Canal Zone under Goethals, whence he went to Mexico and joined Madero, acting as the latter's chief -of -staff. In 1912 he joined the Greek army to fight in the Balkan wars, and reached the rank of brigadier. In 1914 on the outbreak of the World War he raised an Italian Legion of 14,000 men to fight on the side of France, and his six brothers accompanied him as officers. The Legion fought in the Argonne, and had 6,000 casualties, among the killed being two of the Garibaldi brothers. Giuseppe was made lieutenant-colonel, and subsequently colonel, in the Foreign Legion. In 1915 Garibaldi returned to Italy with his legionaries, and on Italy's entry into the war he and his brothers enlisted as volunteers. They were soon afterwards commissioned, Giuseppe being given command of a battalion. He served with the 4th Army until the spring of 1918, and distinguished himself in command of a regiment, a group of mountain troops and a brigade, and reached the rank of colonel-brigadier. He returned to the French front in March 1918 in command of the famous Brigata Alpi, which formed part of the Italian II. Corps. In June Garibaldi was promoted to brigadier-general, the only Italian officer of reserve to reach this rank. After the Armistice ,he commanded the Italian 8th Div. in Belgium. He retired from his command in June 1919 and gave up his commission in Feb. of the following year, returning to the business life which had been so often interrupted by these episodes of adventure. GARLAND, HAMLIN (1860- ), American writer, was born at West Salem, Wis., Sept. 16 1860. His father, a farmer, migrated to Iowa, where the boy grew up. He graduated from the Cedar Valley Seminary, Osage, at the age of 21, and taught for a year in Illinois. In 1883 he took up a claim in Dakota; but the following year went to Boston, where he read diligently in the public library and turned to story writing. In 1887 he revisited the scenes of his boyhood, and the drudgery of farm life in the Middle West furnished him with abundant material for his realistic tales. His works include Main Travelled Roads (1891) ; Prairie Folks (1892); A Member of the Third House (1892); A Spoil of Office (1892); Rose of Dutcher's Cooley (1895); Boy Life on the Prairie (1899); Her Mountain Lover (1901); The Captain of the Gray Horse Troop (1902); The Long Trail (1907); Money Magic (1907); Cavanagh (1909); Other Main Travelled Roads (1910); Victor Olnee's Discipline (1911); The Forester's