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106 siastic support of western people, many of whom had been hostile to the service and its policies. Permanent improvements in the national forests are estimated to have a value of almost $13,000,000. They include 5,043 m. of roads, 29,419 m. of trails, and 25,031 m. of telephone lines. A substantially complete land classification of the national forests has been made. By the Weeks law, enacted March r 1911, 1,796,788 ac. of forest in the southern Appalachian and White mountains of the eastern United States have been added by purchase to the national forests. The investment is a good one, since the present value of the land and timber sold is notably more than the original price plus the cost of care and protection. The average price paid per acre was $5.24. The purchased land is distributed in the following States:

States

Acres

Alabama

62,966

Arkansas

36,529

Georgia

153.665

Maine

32,153

New Hampshire

401,026

North Carolina

326,786

South Carolina

18,612

Tennessee

246,675

Virginia

387,888

West Virginia

130,488

Total (as of June 30 1920)

1,796,788

It is expected that in the end not less than 7,000,000 ac. will have been acquired under the Weeks law. In addition to the purchase of forest land by the Government, the Weeks law authorized the co- operation of one state with another or with the United States in the protection of forests from fire. An amount ranging from $100,000 to $200,000 has been appropriated by Congress yearly for coopera- tion under this system, which contemplates that the state shall expend an amount at least equal to that expended by the Federal Government. Twenty-four states have taken advantage of it and the results are excellent.

Forest Products. The Forests Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis., maintained by the U.S. Forest Service in cooperation with the university of Wisconsin, was established in 1911. It studies forest products and the best methods for their utilization. The total of its expenditures to Jan. 1921 is about $2,000,000, and a conservative estimate of the value of its work to American industries is not less than $30,000,000. During the World War about two-thirds of the force of the laboratory was occupied with problems related to war work. Among them were the mechanical and physical properties of different species of woods, methods of seasoning, substitutes for spruce in the construction of aeroplanes.'and the strength of laminated structures for plywood. More recently, box testing has resulted in important savings in the manufacture of boxes and has greatly re- duced the damage to boxed commodities. The laboratory has made a total of 500,000 tests on the mechanical properties of wood. A study of the influence of decayed wood on the quantity and quality of wood-pulp showed that the loss in storee pulp was probably not less than $5,000,000 a year, much of which could be prevented. This service now has four experiment stations, mainly in the West.

During 1910-20, state departments of forestry increased in number and extended the scope of their work. Thirty-four states now recognize forestry in this way, but the work of their departments is still weak and far below the standard of the Federal service. The area of forest land and the number of forests owned by the states are shown in the following table:

State

Number of State Forests

Area (Acres)

Connecticut

5

3,702

Indiana. ..

i

2,000

Maryland. . ..

5

3-5oo

Massachusetts.

5

13,000

Michigan. .

82

289,515

Minnesota

4

333-000

New Hampshire

43

11,002

New Jersey

7

16,590

New York. . ..

2

1,838,322

North Carolina

I

340

Ohio ... ..

2

1,720

Pennsylvania.

26

1,108,476

South Dakota.

2

80,000

Vermont. ..

13

20,135

Wisconsin. ..

I

380,443

Total ac. .

4,101,745

Much encouragement has been given by state departments to private planters of forest trees. Pennsylvania distributes annually about 3,000,000 forest-tree seedlings and " transplants " to private owners who pay only the cost of packing and shipping. The state contemplates an increase of this number to 20,000,000 and the raising of the trees at state-maintained charitable and correctional institutions. New York in 1919 distributed 2,225,000 seedlings at the cost of production. Most of the states supply technical advice to owners of woodland. In many of the states private forest fire protective organizations are common and usually efficient. In the West their work is confined mainly to the protection of valuable standing timber. Elsewhere it covers large areas of second growth or devastated land.

Wood is an essential munition of war and is required in enormous quantities by armies in the field. The U.S. army alone used 450,- 000,000 board-feet of timber and 560,000 cords of firewood during the war. The 2oth Engineers, with a personnel of 18,000 men, operated 81 saw-mills in France and cut approximately 2,000,000 board-feet of timber, ties, piles and poles, in addition to enormous quantities of firewood, every working day. This regiment, composed mainly of lumbermen, was officered largely by trained foresters. Within one year after its formation 90% of the recruited men had landed in France, had built their own railway connexions, and had cut 300,000,000 board-feet of timber and railroad ties, 38,000 piles, and 2,878,000 poles and entanglement stakes. At least 75 % of the wood used by the A.E.F. came from the forests of France.

During the decade 1910-20 technical instruction in forestry was crystallized and advanced, and popular instruction and practical demonstration in forestry has taken on a notable extension. Fores- try is now widely taught in the agricultural colleges, vocational schools, and in the biological courses of colleges, normal schools, and public schools. Most of the forest schools which give technical instruction were established between 1900 and 1910. There are now 20 technical forest schools in America, a number entirely adequate to meet present demands. The Yale school of forestry and the department of forestry at Harvard grant the degree of Master of Forestry. Most of the other forestry schools give undergraduate courses leading to the degree of Bachelor of Science in forestry or Bachelor of Forestry. Some of the best known are those at the uni- versity of Maine, Cornell and Syracuse universities in New York, the Pennsylvania State Forest Academy, and the universities of Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Idaho, Washington and California.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. In addition to the authorities cited in 10.660 are: Fernow, The Care of Trees (1910); Van Hise, The Conservation of Natural Resources (1910); Bowman, Forest Physiography (1911); Graves, Principles of Handling Woodlands (1911); Schenck, Forest Utilization (1911); Elliott, The Important Timber Trees of the United States (1912); Fernow, History of Forestry (1912); Record, Economic Woods of the United States (1912); Recknagel, Theory and Practice of Working Plan (1912); Barnes, Western Grazing Grounds and Forest Rangers (1913) ; Bryant, Logging (1913) ; Kellogg, Lumber and its Uses (1914); Moon and Brown, Elements of Forestry (1914); Record, Mechanical Properties of Woods (1914); Roth, Forest Regulations (1914); Hawley and Hawes, Forestry in New England (1915); Chapman, Forest Finance (1916); Ferguson, Farm Forestry (1916); Roth, Forest Valuation (1916); Tourney, Seeding and Planting (1916); Weiss, Preservation of Structural Timber (1916); Jeffry, Anatomy of Woody Plants (1917); Kinney, The Essentials of American Timber Law (1917); Pinchot, The Train- ing of a Forester (1917); Snow, Wood and Other Organic Structural Material (1917); Taylor, Hand Book for Rangers and Woodsmen (1917); Woolsey, French Forests and Forestry (1917): Boerker, Our National Forests (1918); Belts, Timber, Its Strength, Seasoning and Grading (1919); Recknagel-Bentley, Forest Management (1919): Brown, Forest Products (1919); Ise, The United States Forest Policy (1920); Woolsey, Studies in French Forestry (1920). (G. P.) FORMAN, HARRY BUXTON (1842-1917), British man of letters and civil servant, was born in London July n 1842. He was educated at Teignmouth, and at the age of eighteen entered the postal service, where he remained until his retirement in 1907, being successively controller of the packet service and second secretary. He was for many years associated with the foreign branch of the service. It is, however, as a man of letters, and particularly as an authority on Shelley and Keats, that he is best known (see 24.832). His first book, Our Living Poets, was published in 1871, and was followed in 1876 by the first volume of his edition of the Prose and Poetical Works of Shelley, and in 1886 by the Shelley Library. He also published editions of Keats from 1883 onwards, and in 1896 Elizabeth Barrett Browning and her Scarcer Books. His last publication, Books of William Morris, appeared in 1897, in which year he was made C.B. He died at St. John's Wood, London, June 15 1917. FORMOSA (TAIWAN). The island of Taiwan (Formosa), which was ceded to Japan by China in 1895 (see 10.669), has an area of 13,839 sq. m., and in 1920 the pop. was 3,654,398, representing a density per sq. m. of 264 inhabitants. The chief towns are Taihoku, Tainan, Kagi and Taichu.

Administration and Finance. Taiwan was placed under a civil administration in April 1896, and legislative steps were taken in the