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930 ern education. But while there has been an increasing measure of administrative devolution in education the main lines of prog- ress are common to all parts of Great Britain, though to a less extent to Ireland. England, which had been in the past more backward in its general education provision of elementary and secondary education than Scotland or Wales, has perhaps shown a greater advance during these years than any other part of the United Kingdom, and has not only led the movement for an obligatory system of continuation education to the age of 18, but has opened a wider vision of adult civic education and culture.

Education in England. When the position of education in England was reviewed at the opening of the second decade of the 2oth century, it could be seen that the system established by the Act of 1902 had become firmly established. That Act had done three noteworthy things. First, it had abolished the school boards and transferred their powers as regards education to the county and municipal councils. Secondly, it brought the volun- tary elementary schools under the local education authority and assisted them by support from local rates, while leaving them a large measure of control in management. Thirdly, it had given the new local education authorities power to provide for schemes of secondary education and to levy rates for this purpose. Since 1902 there had been no important change in the constitutional machinery of the educational system in England. The Act of 1918 in England called into being no new order of local education authorities, as had been done by the corresponding Act in Scot- land. In 1921 there were in England nearly three hundred local education authorities, with powers of making schemes and levy- ing rates, standing in direct relation to the Board of Education, whereas in Scotland the number of local education authorities had by the Education Act (Scotland), 1918, been reduced to under 40. The consolidating movement had, therefore, pro- gressed much further in Scotland than in England.

As regards elementary education, already in 1910 the system in England had become well established. Attendance at school was required up to the age of 13, and by the Act of 1918 is obli- gatory on all up to the age of 14. The average attendance has varied from 86% to 89%. Apart from the abnormal period of the war there has been a gradual diminution in granting of exemptions from school, and the Act of 1918 abolishes whole or partial exemption under 14 years. There has been little change in the number of public elementary schools in England. In 1903 there were 18,487, and in 1919-20 their number was 19,070. But there has been a considerable change since the Act of 1902 in the number of council and voluntary schools respectively. Since 1903 the number of voluntary schools has fallen from 13,438 to 11,635, whereas the council schools have increased in number from 5,049 to 7,435 in 1920. The total average attendance of pupils in public elementary schools in England, in 1920, was 4,795,672. In respect of the provision of teachers the period also shows relatively little change, but gradual improvement. The number of teachers, per 1,000 pupils in average attendance, in 1910-11, was 30-9, of whom 19-01 were certificated, 8-10 were uncerti Seated, and 2-98 other adult teachers. In 1919-20 the number of teachers per 1,000 scholars was 30-4, of whom 21-8 were certificated, 6-3 uncertificated, and 2-3 other adult teachers. In certain other matters, however, there had been very marked advance. In the years 1907-10 steps had been taken to secure to the local education authorities in England and Wales powers to establish medical inspection, to provide meals for school children where this was considered desirable, and to organize information in cooperation with the labour exchanges for the guidance of children in the choice of employment on leaving school. Provi- sion had also been extended for the purpose of dealing with the mentally and physically deficient and a much wider recognition was secured for " after care " work among school children. A wider conception of the school and its responsibilities was thus steadily emerging. The Act of 1918 has carried the movement forward and has converted these powers of local education au- thorities into a duty to look after the health and physical condi- tion of the children in public elementary schools. A system of school health services providing not only medical inspection, but

also treatment, is now well on the road to accomplishment. Again, as regards the physically and mentally defective and epileptic children, the Act of 1918 requires that the local educa- tion authorities shall ascertain what children in their areas are thus afflicted and shall make provision for their education. It is also worthy of note that the Act of 1918 lays particular emphasis on the great importance of healthy recreation. The Act enables local education authorities, with the approval of the Board of Education, to supply, or maintain, or aid (a) holiday or school camps especially for young persons attending continua- tion schools, (6) centres and equipment for physical training, playing fields, school swimming-baths, (c) other facilities for social and physical training in the day and evening. A very large proportion of the proposals already submitted have been concerned with holiday and school camps. In this connexion it may be noted that the 1918 Act specially encourages local educa- tion authorities to avail themselves of voluntary services, particularly in the development of the recreative side of school life, and the work of the Juvenile Organizations Committee in promoting healthy recreation is a sign of the new spirit which is now steadily pervading the educational system. Thus with the great development in State action, the sphere of voluntary action is also increasing. The ideal education policy requires volun- tary and state agencies acting in close cooperation.

Secondary education in England presents a very different situation. It might almost be said that, until the opening of the 2oth century, there was no national system of secondary educa- tion in England. The number of secondary schools, apart from the residential public schools and the old grammar schools, were few and the gateway from the elementary schools was very nar- row. But the Report of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education in 1895, the Education Act of 1902, and the Regula- tions for Secondary Education in 1907, are stages in the founda- tion work of a new order, and during 1910-20 considerable prog- ress was achieved in building up the framework of a national system of secondary education. The great public schools and grammar schools which have been so distinguished a feature of English higher education retain their independence and their well-deserved prestige. Like the ancient residential universities of Oxford and Cambridge, their position has been strengthened rather than weakened by the growth of new institutions. But the public schools (as the term is understood in England, mean- ing Eton, Harrow, and so forth) can only supply education to a very limited number and at a high cost, while there is a steadily increasing demand that there shall be easy provision of second- ary education for all children who are willing and able to avail themselves of it. By 1911 there were 862 secondary schools on the Board of Education grant list, with 141,000 pupils; in 1920 there were 1,021 schools, with 282,005 pupils. There were also in 1911 96 secondary schools recognized as efficient but not on the grant-earning list, with over 17,000 pupils while in 1920 there were 201 of these schools with 36,271 pupils. In the case of the schools on the grant list normally 25% of the places must be free; the actual proportion was considerably higher.

In considering however such figures of secondary education a caution is necessary. By far the greater number of pupils attend- ing these schools are under 16 years of age. In the session 1910- 20, out of the total of 282,005 pupils in the secondary schools 83,- 386 were under 12 years of age, 177,988 were of 12 and under 16 years, while only 20,631 were 16 years of age and over. Thus for all except a very small percentage, secondary education ends before 16 years of age. When it is recalled that there are close on 5 million children in the public elementary schools of England, and that the number leaving the elementary schools each year must be close on 600,000, it is evident how restricted the national provision of secondary education still remains. This in itself emphasizes the importance of the step taken in 1918 to provide obligatory continuation education. It is the case that in England the demand for secondary education has considerably exceeded the supply, but it is also true that the pressure of economic cir- cumstances and the tradition of getting to work early will prevent a very large number of children in the elementary schools from