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Rh Ferdinand. The Obersthoftneister, Prince Montenuovo (1854- ), was superseded by the former president of the council of minis- ters, Prince Conrad Hohenlohe (1863-1920); the position of head of the military chancery, which had been held during the last years of the Emperor Francis Joseph by Freiherr von Bolfras (1838- ), was given to Field-Marshal von Marterer (1862- 1919); Count Polzer (1870- ) succeeded Freiherr von Schiessl (1844- ) as head of the civil chancery. The Archduke Frederick, the commander-in-chief, was dismissed, the Emperor himself taking over the supreme command of the army, and headquarters were transferred from Teschen to Baden, near Vienna. Shortly afterwards Conrad von Hotzcndorf was re- placed as chief of the general staff by Arz von Straussenburg. In the great offices of State there was also a change of personnel. The position of the Hungarian prime minister, Stephen Tisza, was indeed much too strong for his removal to be thought of at that time, and this was not effected till May 1917. But the Austrian prime minister, Ernst von Korber, was replaced by Count Clam-Martinitz, and the Austro-Hungarian foreign minister, Baron Burian, by Count Ottokar Czernin. These changes, however, were merely disadvantages, because the new men, with the exception of Czernin, could not free themselves from the traditional principles of government, while they lacked the experience of their predecessors.

The Emperor Charles himself had not the energy and strength of character necessary to carry out his views. Even his adherents while praising his powerful memory, his gift of rapid comprehension, his marked sense of the greatness of his House, his devotion to duty, and his personal charm, admit that he lacked the stronger qualities. His efforts for peace, which embroiled him with Germany, and his attempts to save the Habsburg Monarchy by concessions to the various nationalities composing it are described in the article AUSTRIAN EMPIRE (Foreign Policy).

During 1918 his attitude became more and more vacillating. Immediately after the capitulation of the Bulgarian army he announced that the various nationalities were free to sever their connexion with the monarchy, but on Oct. 16, in the hope of saving the dynasty, he issued a manifesto forecasting the conversion of Austria into a federal state, but with no mention of Hungary. This project also failed, the revolutionary elements having gained complete control in the various territories, and on Nov. ii the Emperor, in order not to hinder the free development of his peoples, resigned all share in the government of Austria. Two days later he made a similar renunciation in the case of Hungary. The German Austrian Republic was proclaimed by the National Assembly on Nov. 12; the Hun- garian at Budapest on Nov. 16. Yet Charles did not resign the crown of his dominions. He retired to his castle of Eckarotau on the Danube; thence he went on March 24 1919 to Switzer- land, where he stayed first at Schloss Gstaad, and later at Prangins. His attempt at the end of March 1921 to secure his restoration as King of Hungary failed owing to the un- friendly attitude of the Hungarians and the unanimous oppo- sition of the Succession States and the Entente.

A further and more serious attempt, on Oct. 22-24 1921, was defeated with fatal results to the ex-Emperor's chances of res- toration. Having made a surprise air-flight with his wife from Switzerland to the Burgenland (where for some weeks a revolt had been organized against its transference to Austria), Charles was there joined by a small force of armed Royalists, at whose head he marched on Budapest. But the Allied Powers, as well as the " Little Entente," at once made it clear that a coup d'etat would not be tolerated; and there was a strong rally at Budapest to the side of the Horthy Government. The Royalists, within 12 m. of Budapest, were met and defeated, with heavy losses, Charles and Zita being themselves arrested at Komorn. On instructions from the Powers, the definite deposition of Charles and renunciation of his claims to the throne were insisted upon, and he and his wife were handed over to the custody of the Allies for internment. With this dramatic failure was ended the ihope of a restored Habsburg dynasty in Hungary.

(A. F. PR.)

CHARMES, FRANCIS (1848-1916), French journalist and politician, was born at Aurillac, Cantal, April 21 1848. He was educated at Aurillac, and afterwards at the lycees of Clermont-Ferrand and Poitiers, subsequently entering journalism. He rapidly made a mark as a brilliant writer, and in 1872 became editor of the Journal des Debats, where he remained until 1880, returning to it from 1889 to 1907. His political writings created much interest, and in 1880 the Government appointed him to the post of assistant director of the political department of the Foreign Office. In 1885 he became head of the department, and remained in the Foreign Office until 1889. From 1881 to 1885 and again from 1889 to 1898 he was deputy for Cantal, and in 1900 became a senator. Charmes is, however, best known for his connexion with the Revue des Deux Mond.es, In 1893 he began his famous political writings in the Revue, and in 1907 became its editor. He takes a high place among the journalists of the third republic, and his articles and studies, both literary and political, in the Journal des Dtbats and Revue des Deux Mondes were one of the features of French literary history during the last years of the igth century. He died in Paris Jan. 4 1916.

CHARNAY [CLAUDE JOSEPH], DESIRE (1828-1915), French traveller and archaeologist (see 5.947), died in Paris Oct. 24

CHARPENTIER, GUSTAVE (1860- ), French operatic composer, was born at Dieuze, Lorraine, June 24 1860. He received his musical education at the Paris conservatoire under Massenet, and obtained the Prix de Rome in 1887. His works include Impressions fausses (1895); Impressions d'Italie (1891) and the operas La Vie du Poete (1892); Louise (1900), which, first produced at Covent Garden in 1909, has attained a wide popularity, and Julien, as well as Chant d'apotheose pour le centenaire de Victor Hugo. He founded the Conservatoire de Mimi Pinson (for working girls), and during the World War started the (Euvre de Mimi Pinson and Cocarde de Mimi Pinson to aid wounded soldiers.

CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849-1916), American painter (see 5.956), died in New York, Oct. 25 1916. In 1912 he was awarded the Proctor prize by the National Academy of Design for his "Portrait of Mrs. H." At the Panama-Pacific Exposition (1915) a special room was assigned to his works.

CHEMICAL WARFARE: see POISON GAS.

CHEMISTRY (see 6.33). A retrospect, in 1921, of the further advances made in chemical science, brings to mind that it was only in 1876 that the final paragraph of the article on Chemistry in the gth ed. of the E.B. referred to the then quite recent establishment of the periodic law as marking a new era. In that article the elements were dealt with in groups, in accordance with their periodic relationships. In 1902, in the supplementary article published in the 10th ed., stress was laid on the uncertainties which still attended the attempt to classify the elements. Subsequent progress has been astounding, so much so that chemistry appears, during 1905-20, to have entered upon yet another era. New methods have been introduced and a degree of certainty has been given to the primary postulates of the science, even within living memory, which could not have been contemplated as with- in the bounds of attainment; at the same time, old suspicions have been justified and conceptions which had long been entertained have been realized. The advance is mainly the outcome of studies in the borderland region between chemistry and physics and is due to much overlapping of inquiry.

It is always interesting to trace events to their causes. A name to be written large on the page of advance is that of the late Sir William Crookes, whose casual observation (about 1861) of a peculiar behaviour of his vacuum balance, when determining the atomic weight of the element thallium, caused him to study heat-radiation effects in low vacua and led to the invention of his celebrated radiometer (1874). He thus became interested in the improvement of the vacuum pump and was led on to pay special attention to the negative or cathode electric discharge in high vacua. His results attracted attention owing to the beauty of the demonstrations he gave; he was himself sufficiently convinced of their novelty to regard the cathode discharge as consisting of