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Rh Cunliffe's troops had had very stubborn fighting during this closing phase of the campaign, the most difficult operation being the capture (Nov. 45) of Banyo, a hill-fortress which lay some 200 m. N. of Yaunde and on the edge of that corner of Cameroon, the region towards the Cross river, where German resistance was continued to the last. In this quarter the Germans continued to offer determined resistance to Cunliffe's forces, and when on Jan. 2 1916 Cunliffe learned that Yaunde had fallen, his advanced troops were still 40 m. distant from that objective.

The efforts made to cut off Col. Zimmermann before he could reach neutral territory failed; the first part of his force entered Spanish Guinea on Feb. 4 and the other detachments quickly fol- lowed, and when on Feb. 18 1916 Capt. von Raben and his gallant garrison at Mora surrendered on terms after nearly 1 8 months' blockade, the conquest of Cameroon was complete.

See the despatches of Sir C. M. Dobell and Gen. Cunliffe in the London Gazette (4th supplement) of May 31 1916; The Times History of the War, vol. viii., chap. 131 (1916), and L' Illustration (Paris, 1916) which gives valuable particulars of Gen. Aymerich's operations. (F. R. C.)

CAMMAERTS, ÉMILE (1878- ), Belgian poet, was born at Brussels March 16 1878. In 1908 he settled in England. His earlier works include four volumes of translations of Ruskin into French, and Les Bellini, an essay in art criticism; and he has also written two plays, Les Deux Bossus (1917) and La Veillee de Noel (1917). It is, however, by the poems written during the World War that M. Cammaerts attained his widest popularity. These include Belgian Poems (1915); New Belgian Poems (1917); and Messines and other Poems (1918). He also produced Through the Iron Bars (1917), an account of the sufferings of Belgium during the World War.

M. Cammaerts married Tita Brand, a daughter of the singer Madame Marie Brema. MADAME BRAND-CAHMAERTS became well known during the World War for her recitations of her husband's patriotic poems. Apres Aimers, set to music by Sir Edward Elgar under the name of Carillon, was one of the great popular successes during the first two years of the World War.

CAMOUFLAGE (from Fr. camoufler, to blind or veil; It. camitffare, to make up), a French word which came into use, and was adopted into English, at the opening of the World War, 1 to express deceptive concealment, with all that it implies. Its real meaning may be defined as " concealment of the fact that deception is being practised or something being hidden. " De- ception is an essential ingredient, but concealment (in the sense of " hiding from view ") is not. For example, protective coloura- tion in nature does not render an animal invisible but indistin- guishable.

Camouflage may be achieved by two distinct methods (a) imitation (simulation), and (b) adaptation (dissimulation). The former is exemplified by the replacement of a real tree by a dummy one of exactly similar external appearance the latter by so treating an object as to cause it to blend with its surround- ings. The former is the method most widely employed in land warfare, whereas the latter is more common in nature.

In sea practice, camouflage was adopted during the World War in the form known as " dazzle painting " (see below). Bold and fantastic colour patterns were used for the purpose of mis- leading an observer as to the exact course being pursued by the ship; no attempt was made to render the vessel invisible.

I. "NATURAL" CAMOUFLAGE

In the article COLOURS OF ANIMALS (see also 6.731*) the methods of concealment among animals are described and classified from many points of view. It will be convenient, for the purpose of indicating their connexion with artificial camouflage, to separate them into two main divisions, one the method of direct imitation, and the other the method of general inconspicuousness.

Concealment by the first method is effected by the animal imitating some object in its natural surroundings against which it is commonly seen. It is clear that the better the imitation, the more effective the concealment. For instance, the leaf butterfly, Kallima, so closely resembles a dead leaf that when

'The French word camouflet, meaning a small and deep mine which on explosion does not break the surface of the ground, has been in use by military engineers for nearly two centuries.

resting among dead leaves it can only be located with the greatest difficulty. More often the animal can be found by careful search, but is likely to be overlooked, as, for instance, a tiger crouching amongst dead rushes. In all such cases a direct imitation, more or less exact, is made use of. The application of this principle in land warfare is discussed in section II below. The replacement of real trees by almost exact copies, internally fitted as observa- tion posts, is perhaps the best-known example of camouflage of this class as practised in the World War.

The method of general inconspicuousness may be described under: (i) colour; (2) tone; (3) outline, and (4) modelling and cast shadow. These are the qualities by means of which an object is revealed and thus are those which an animal desiring not to be seen must conceal.

1. Colour. The sandy-coloured desert animal and the green caterpillar are examples of the use of colour to produce general in- conspicuousness. Browns, greens and greys, being common back- ground colours, are usually used. Bright colours such as yellows and reds are occasionally made use of, for instance, by insects amongst autumnal foliage. Even before military camouflage had been sys- tematically studied, most armies had adopted inconspicuous field service uniforms.

2. Tone. This is a quality of great importance in camouflage, for the reason that aerial photography was largely used for its detection. In the concealment of animals it is also of considerable importance, though somewhat lost sight of in local colour. An animal which is either darker or lighter than its surroundings will be likely to be revealed in spite of being well coloured. In artificial camouflage it was found that the right tone could be more easily effected by texture than by, for instance, pigment. Thus, the imi- tation of grass could not be made with green paint on a smooth sur- face: from one point of view it might simulate well, but from another angle it would reflect a high light (see section II below). Roofs of buildings were concealed by covering them with hay, heather and brushwood stuck to the roof with an adhesive paint. The appearance of rough ground so produced could not have been obtained by any kind of painting. But although texture is of so much importance, it must not be thought that local colour can be entirely ignored. The aeroplane photographer used plates sensi- tive to particular coloured lights or colour filters which had the same effect, namely the detection of any fault in local colouration. The Germans used a green sensitive plate which, no doubt, would have detected a brown camouflage erected on a green field, even if the tone-match had been good. Moreover, the aeroplane carries a human observer as well as the camera.

3. Outline. The production of inconspicuousness by pattern is utilized by animals moving from background to background, which are now seen against foliage and now against brown earth. An ani- mal broadly patterned in green and brown will appear inconspicu- ous against both these backgrounds and is recognized principally by its characteristic outline or silhouette. Against earth, only the green of the parti-coloured animal will be seen, and this will not have the characteristic shape of the animal, neither will the brown part of the pattern when it is viewed against foliage. The most efficient pattern is one which greatly disrupts the characteristic shape; one, for instance, which breaks out at conspicuous angles or across easily recognized straight lines and curves. Thus, birds commonly exhibit a pattern which divides the head into two, along the line joining the base of the bill with the shape of the neck, and the characteristic straightness of the tail is broken by cross-bars of pattern. A thin, dark or light, line separating the components of the pattern greatly aids its disruptive effect. This method of con- cealment has been used for guns and other objects, on which pat- terns of dark green and brown, separated by narrow black lines, were painted in large irregular blotches across the barrel, wheels and limber (see section II below).

There are other ways by means of which outline may! be con- cealed. Among birds and insects fringes are sometimes made use of: viewed at a distance, the fringed edge has a blurred appear- ance causing the object to fade into its background. This principle of the fringed edge was freely and successfully employed in mili- tary camouflage, notably in the case of the flat-topped gun covers described in section II. Among insects an edge* is often made to appear indistinct by a small marginal pattern of dark and light tone. When viewed at such a distance that the pattern is blended, the edge appears blurred. This is in principle quite different to dis- ruptive patterns, which are only effective as long as they are visible, whereas the marginal patterns are only effective beyond their blending distance.

4. Modelling and Cast Shadow. Modelling is revealed to the eye by the varying amount of light reflected from different parts of the object, and also by the shadow cast upon neighbouring objects. Animals and birds are often toned so as to appear flat by having those parts which are turned towards the light dark in tone; and those away from the light, light in tone. It is common to find the backs of birds dark-brown or black and their breasts white. When


 * These figures indicate the volume and page number of the previous article.