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Rh together on the common ground of finance, and he failed. He endeavoured, while he was prime minister, to meet the arrogant demands of Germany in Morocco, in the course of protracted and secret negotiations carried out mainly through Baron von Lan- cken, who was then Chancellor of the German embassy in Paris. These negotiations became known, notably to Clemenceau, and they directly led to the dispatch by Germany to Agadir of the gunboat " Panther " in 1911. The convention which put an end to the ensuing crisis involved the surrender by France of large tracts of the French Congo to Germany. The whole negotiations formed the subject of an inquiry by a special committee of the Senate, whose report was very unfavourable to Caillaux. Never- theless, thanks to his undoubted qualities as a financier, he re- mained a great power in French politics. He fought the Three Years' Service bill with the utmost tenacity; and although that measure became law, it was he who finally, on the financial aspect of that bill, brought about the downfall of the Barthou Ministry in the autumn of 1913. His past history was of a character which made it impossible, if the Entente Cordiale was to continue, that he should return to the position of prime minis- ter, but he joined the new Cabinet as Minister of Finance. As a financial expert he had for long identified himself with a great and necessary reform in the fiscal policy of France the introduc- tion of the principle of an income tax. For this principle he strove in public, at any rate throughout the winter of 1913. His advo- cacy of an income tax and his uncertain and erratic championship of proletarian ideas, alarmed all the conservative elements in the country, and throughout the winter he was attacked with increas- ing violence from the platform and through the p_ress. Those attacks reached their highest point of bitterness in a series of dis- closures in the Figaro, of a more or less personal nature. This newspaper started the publication of letters addressed by him to the second Mme. Caillaux while he was still married to the first. A tragic end was made to the Figaro's campaign when the second Mme. Caillaux called upon the editor, M. Gaston Calmette, and fired five shots at him on March 16, mortally wounding him. Caillaux's resignation followed at once. The elections which took place shortly afterwards resulted in a crisis of unusual bit- terness, which was solved eventually by Viviani becoming prime minister. The trial of Mme. Caillaux for murder began on July 20 1914 and ended by her acquittal on the very eve of war.

During the first part of the World War, Caillaux, who was by no means a popular figure, filled the duties of an army paymaster. After one or two scenes in Paris he was sent on a mission to South America. He returned in 1915, and at once attracted every effort of the German secret service. Although taking no overt part in politics he carried on a lobby campaign; he financed newspapers, and did everything he possibly could behind the scenes to consolidate his position. He became acquainted with the Bolos and the Malvys of political and journalistic life, and his activities aroused the alarm of all French patriots. By the spring of 1917 he had become in the eyes of the public " I'homme de la defaite " i.e. the man who was willing to effect a compro- mise peace with Germany at the expense of Great Britain. The long political intrigue (see FRANCE: History) which led to the advent of Clemenceau to power killed all his hopes. Caillaux was arrested, and, after long delay, tried on a charge of high treason by the High Court of the Senate, and sentenced to three years' imprisonment, the term he had already served, and to the pro- hibition of residence in French territory for five years and depri- vation of civil rights for ten years.

CAILLETET, LOUIS PAUL (1832-1913), French chemist, was born at Chatillon-sur-Seine Sept. 21 1832. He was a pioneer in experimental work with the liquefaction of gases (see 16.745 and 757). He died in Paris Jan. 4 1913.

CAINE, SIR THOMAS HENRY HALL (1853- ), English novelist (see 4.949), was created K.B.E. in 1918, in recognition of his war services, especially in propaganda work. In 1914-5 he edited King Albert's Book, a cooperative contribution in honour of Belgium. In 1916 he wrote a play The Iron Hand; another play, The Prime Minister, was produced at the Royalty theatre, London, in 1918.

CAIRO, Egypt (see 4.953). At the census of 1917 Cairo had a pop. of 790,939, being the largest city in Africa. The Moslem pop. numbered 631,163, Christian 128,991 (including 5,589 Protestants), Jewish 29,207 and others 1,578. Classified by nationality the numbers were: Egyptian subjects 721,972, Italians 15,655, Greeks 15,254, Ottomans 12,081, French 8,252, British 7,524 (including Maltese 1,663 ar >d other naturalized British subjects 2,659), Russians 1,242, Austrians 1,004, Spanish 627, Rumanians 528, Swiss 280, Belgians 266.

The work of improving communications, providing the city with a new sanitary system and the preservation of ancient sites and buildings was carried on with vigour up to the time of the outbreak of the World War. A new bridge across the Nile at Bulaq was com- pleted in 1912, after four years labour. A carriage road to Helwan was opened for traffic in 1913. The principal works of the main drainage system were finished in 1914. The Heliopolis oasis scheme (launched in 1906) had by 1914 resulted in the building of a hand- some residential suburb, and here was erected a wireless station and a large aerodrome. This aerodrome became the chief airsta- tion in North Africa, being the starting point for air travel to the Cape, Palestine and Mesopotamia and to Europe. During the World War the removal of the huge and ancient rubbish mounds E. of the city was undertaken; their removal offered a large and healthy site for a new suburb. In 1919 the building of various new government offices was begun.

A law passed in 1918 enlarged the scope of the department charged with the preservation of Arab monuments to include all buildings dating from the Arab conquest to the reign of Mehemet AH, specially citing Coptic ecclesiastic buildings and the Roman fortress of Qasr esh Sham at Old Cairo. Important excavations were made in that fortress. The restoration of the mosque of Ibn Tulun (A.D. 879) was the chief archaeological work vigorously prosecuted during the World War. The mosque of Bibars (A.D. 1269) was in 1918-9 rescued from being a slaughterhouse and its great court turned into a public garden. Large public gardens were constructed at Bulaq and around the Daher mosque. The Sultania library was reor- ganized and in 1920 contained 92,000 volumes; 40,000 in the Orien- tal section.

All larger town-planning schemes had to be abandoned during the World War, and building activity was greatly restricted, while over 800 houses had to be demolished in 1916, having been rendered insecure by infiltration during the high Nile flood of that year. The housing difficulty remained acute in 1920.

The presence during 1914-8 of large numbers of white soldiers, unaccustomed' to Oriental ways, did not, however, give rise to the trouble anticipated. The political history of Cairo is indistinguish- able from that of Egypt, but mention may be made of serious riot- ing in March 1919, following the deportation of Zaghlul Pasha and three of his associates. (F. R. C.)

CALGARY, Alberta, Canada (see 4.1004), had in 1920 a pop. of 75,000. It is the centre of the ranching and grain-producing region of central and southern Alberta, the western general head- quarters of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and an important station of the Royal Canadian Mounted (formerly Royal North- West Mounted) Police. Large water-power stations, lumber- mills, lighting-plants, banks, wholesale houses, first-class hotels, churches, private and public schools, and a Government cream- ery all go to constitute a flourishing city. Four miles south of Calgary is situated the Agricultural Experimental Station under irrigation maintained by the Provincial Government one of the largest of its kind in the world. In addition to its prominence as a pure-bred stock centre, Calgary is fast growing as a manufac- turing city, and year by year extends the range of its industries, which at present include beet sugar, soap, furniture, boilers, farm implements, and miscellaneous machinery. The city council is composed of a mayor and 12 aldermen.

CALIFORNIA (see 5.7). In 1920 the pop. was 3,426,861, as against 2,377,549 in 1910, an increase of 1,049,3 12, or 44-1%, as compared with 60- 1% for the preceding decade. During 1910-20 the Japanese increased from 41,356 to 71,952; the Chinese decreased from 36,248 to 28,812. The density of pop. in 1920 was 22 to the sq. m.; in 1910 15-3. The urban pop. (in places of 2,500 or more) increased from 61-8% of the whole in 1910 to 68% in 1920, the urban pop. in the latter year being 2,331,729. Of the 185 cities in the state, only three, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Oakland, had in 1920 more than 100,000 inhabitants. The table on the next page shows the growth during the decade 1910-20 of the 12 cities which in 1920 had a pop. of 25,000 or more.