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522 and proved of great importance during the World War for the transport of war material from the Central Powers to Turkey. In 1912, Bulgaria owned about 1,200 m. of normal gauge railway; in 1920 about 1, 600 m.. including some 250 m. of 2 ft. gauge which had been laid for military purposes. The following are among the railways projected and partly constructed :

1. Rakovska-Mastanli, part of the line planned in 1913 to connect central Bulgaria with Porto Lagos on the Aegean. Length, about 60 m. ; gauge 30 in.

2. Sarambe-Lyana-Nevrokop, passing through the pine forests of the Upper Myesta. Length, about 1 10 m. ; gauge, 30 in.

3. Mezdra-Vratsa-Vidin, begun in 1906 and now in operation as far as Alexandrovo, 25 m. from Vidin.

Some 500 m. of link lines and some short lengths of railway for the exploitation of forests are also projected, but work is held up for lack of funds. A law of 1921 sanctioned the construction of railways not only by local bodies but by individuals, and special privileges were offered in the hope of attracting private enterprise. In 1921, Bulgaria owned some 9,900 m. of telegraph line, and some 2 700 m. of telephone line. There were four fixed radio telegraphic stations: Sofia (Telefunken 10 kilowatts) Varna (Marconi). Shumen and Kyustendil, Kyustendil being not yet completed: according to the terms of the treaty, these stations may only be used for commercial purposes.

Social Conditions. The programme of the Agrarian Government under the leadership of Stamboliiski was framed primarily in the interests of the peasants in contradistinction to those of the bour- geoisie. Some of the measures already in operation or contemplated in 1921 evoked much hostile criticism on the part of the Opposition, but though they involved some radical changes there seemed no probability of an outbreak of Bolshevism in Bulgaria. Stamboliiski had no wish to change the constitution, and King Boris had won the respect and affection of the people. The peasants were too much attached to their own homes and to their own way of life to desire great changes, provided they were spared further wars and were given a fair chance of peace and prosperity.

The Bulgars have always put a high value on education, and statistics show a steady increase in the number of those able to read and write; in 1910, Bulgaria ranked first in this respect among Balkan peoples, having 33-7% of literates, and in 191920, only 17% of the children of school age had failed to attend school: but the type of education so far provided had led to the overstocking of the clerical professions and to the neglect of technical occupations. The educational programme of the Agrarian Government aimed at giving a more practical bent to instruction generally and at affording equal opportunities to all classes of the community. The total period of compulsory education was to be extended from four to seven years ; a large number of additional primary schools had already been opened and many pro-gymnasia were to be established, as well as professional schools, where a training could be obtained in agricul- ture, industries and practical science. Great results, both material and moral, were expected from the law of May 1920 which imposed a period of forced labour on all members of the community. This law, as originally drafted, provided for one year's service for all males on completion of their 2Oth year and six months for females on completion of their l6th year, the time being devoted half to the- oretical training and half to manual labour on works of public utility. Bulgaria's neighbours, however, suspected that a military organiza- tion of the country might be effected by means of this compulsory service and, in deference to the Council of Ambassadors, the law had not been fully put in force in the spring of 1921. All classes of the community now give ten days' service annually to the State, and the results of the reconstruction work undertaken bridge building, road making, repairs to buildings, forestry, etc. seem satisfactory. Much, of course, depends on the technical supervision provided and on the practical organization of the work. School children, numbering 600,000, and students devoted in March-April 1921 a week to manual labour cleansing buildings and streets, preparing gardens, planting trees, etc.

Other legislative measures taken include up to May 1921 ex- propriation of Crown and Church lands as well as of private prop- erties of over 300 decares (say 75 ac.), the expropriated land being allotted to landless peasants; the commandeering of private houses for public purposes or for the accommodation of necessitous families ; and proceedings by court-martial under Article 4 of the Law for Prosecution of War Criminals, against persons accused of being parties to the entry of Bulgaria into the World War and of con- travention of laws during the war. The prosecutions resulted in long terms of imprisonment and heavy fines, and were naturally regarded by those affected who belonged to the bourgeois class, as vindictive and arbitrary acts of oppression. The Sobranye assented in March 1921 to the prosecution of Radoslavov and his Cabinet for violation of the constitution, notably by raising a loan in Germany with the object of directing the policy of Bulgaria towards the Cen- tral Powers and by declaring war on Serbia in 1916 without the con- sent of the Sobranye.

Bibliography. H. N. Brailsford, Macedonia, its Races and their Future (1905); Victor Benard, La Macedoine, Pro Macedonia (1897, 1904); Sir E. Pears, Turkey and its People (1911); P. Howell, Cam- paign in Thrace (1913) ; W. Miller, The Ottoman Empire 1801-1913 (1913) ; Noel Buxton, With the Bulgarian Staff (1913) ; Sir R. Rankin, Inner History of the Balkan War (1914) ; J. G. Schurman, Balkan Wars 1912-1913 (1914) ; Lt.-Col. Immanuel, La Guerre des Balkans de 1912-13 (1913); Anonymous, "Questions militaires," " Bul- gares contre Serbes," Revue Bleue (1913-4); A. de Penennrun, La Guerre des Balkans, la campagne en Thrace en 1912 (1913), 40 Jours de Guerre (1914); H. Barby, Bregalnitsa (1913); Boucabcille, La Guerre Turco-Balkanique (1913) : Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Report of the International Commission to enquire into the causes and conduct of the Balkan War (Washington, 1914); R. W. Seton- Watson, Rise of Nationality in the Balkans (1917); A Diplomatist. Nationalism and War in the Near East (1915): L. Gueshov. The Balkan League (1915); Nekludov, Diplo- matic Reminiscences. 1911-1917 (1920); Balkanicus, Aspirations of Bulgaria (1915), Diplomaticheski Dokumenti po namecata na Bulgaria v evropeiskata voina, vol. i, 1913-1915 (1920); M. Dunan, L'ete bulgare, 1915 (1917); Noel Buxton and C. L. Leese, Balkan Problems and European Peace (1919); Leland Buxton. Black Sheep of the Balkans (1920): G. Clenton Logio. Bulgaria. Problems and Politics (1919): Bulgaria. "Nations of To-day" Series (1921); Treaty of Peace between the Allied and Associated Powers and Bulgaria and Protocol (London 1920) : Leon Lamouche. La Ques- tion Macedonienne et la paix; le traite de paix avec la Bulgarie (1919) : J. Cvijich. Remarks on the Ethnography of the Macedonian Slavs (1906); M. Bogichevich, Causes of the War, with special reference to Serbia and Russia (1920) ; Publications Plumon, La Bulgarie, la vie technique et industrielle (1921); M. Turlakov, Expose sur la situation financiere de la Bulgarie (1921); J. D. Bourchier, The Final Settlement in the Balkans (1917) ; The Four Treaties of Bucharest (1918); Echo de Bulgarie (Sofia, 1920-1). (E. F. B. G.)

BULLARD, ROBERT LEE (1861- ), American soldier, was born at Youngsboro, Ala., Jan. 15 1861. He graduated from West Point in 1885 and was appointed first lieutenant in 1892. He served in various capacities in the Spanish-American War, and in the Philippines from 1902 to 1904. He was made lieutenant-colonel in 1906. In 1907 he was special investigator for the U.S. provisional Government in Cuba, and the following year was superintendent of public instruction there. In 1911 he was promoted colonel, and in 1917 brigadier-general. He commanded the Second Brigade of the ist Division of the A.E.F. in France in 1917 and was made major-general N.A. From the middle of Dec. 1917 to the middle of July following he com- manded the ist Division and from Oct. 1918 to the follow- ing July the Second Army. In Nov. 1918 he was appointed major-general in the regular army.

BULLEN, ARTHUR HENRY (1857-1920), British man of letters, was born in London Feb. 9 1857 and educated at the City of London school and Balliol College, Oxford. He was the son of George Bullen, sometime keeper of the Printed Books at the British Museum. In earlier life he was a schoolmaster, but subsequently devoted himself to literary work. He became known as an authority on Elizabethan literature, and particularly for his discoveries of long-lost lyrics in the Bodleian and Christ Church libraries at Oxford, and his rediscovery of Campion in 1889 after nearly 300 years of neglect (see 5.138). For several years he was a partner in the publishing house of Lawrence & Bullen, and after its dissolution founded the Shakespeare Head press at Stratford-on-Avon in 1904, which he conducted until his death, but which was afterwards sold to B. H. Black- well of Oxford. He died at Stratford-on-Avon Feb. 29 1920.

BULLEN, FRANK THOMAS (1857-1915), British novelist, was born in London April 5 1857 and was educated for a few years only at a dame school and Westbourne school, Paddington. When he was nine years old his school life came to an end, and he was employed as an errand boy for a time. In 1869 he went to sea, serving before the mast, and travelled to all parts of the world in various capacities including that of chief mate. In 1883 he gave up this seafaring life and became a clerk in the Meteorological Office until 1889. His reputation was made over the publication of The Cruise of the "Cachelot" (1906); and he also wrote, amongst other books, Idylls of the Sea (1899); Sea Wrack (1903); The Call of the Deep (1907) and A Compleat Sea Cook (1912), besides many articles and essays. He died at Madeira March 1 1915.

BULOW, BERNHARD HEINRICH KARL MARTIN, PRINCE VON (see 4.793). Prince Bülow, after his resignation of the German chancellorship in 1909, lived principally at the villa in Rome which he had purchased with a view to his retirement.