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356 Azerbaijan, forms the essential connecting link between Islam of the West and Islam of central Asia and India. Pan-Islamic policy therefore closely affects Azerbaijan. But a further and more serious disturbing influence has been provided by Bolshevik Russia. For economic reasons, and in pursuit of her ambitions and policy in south-western and central Asia, the geographical position held by Azerbaijan made control of the republic a pressing necessity. The short and varied history of this small Caucasian state is, in consequence, concerned chiefly with the interaction of Turkish and Russian policy, and the inevitable question of Armenia and the Armenian people.

History. The history of Azerbaijan as an independent state may be said to have begun on Sept. 20 1917. During the spring and summer of that year upheaval in Russia had passed from symptoms to facts of omen for the world. In March the Govern- ment resigned, a Provisional Government was proclaimed, and the Tsar abdicated; and in April the Provisional Government issued its proclamation declaring for the self-determination of peoples and the establishment of a lasting peace. In June the Black Sea fleet mutinied, and the Russian armies in Asia Minor, saturated with Bolshevik theories and shouting " No annexations and no indemnities!" abandoned their positions before the enemy and retired behind the Russo-Turkish frontier of 1914. On Sept. 15, Russia became a republic.

Need for common action by the Caucasian peoples was evident, as the Turkish front was held now by troops whose military value was fast disappearing. There was, further, at least on the part of Georgians and Armenians, a genuine desire to use the opportunity for securing some form of independence which should safeguard their national rights. The creation of the Russian Republic was followed, two days later, by a Council of the Trans-Caucasian peoples, assembled at Tiflis, proclaiming Trans-Caucasia a Federal Republic. This step involved remov- ing a Russian Bolshevik Commissar who had already been sent to Tiflis to replace the Viceroy and Commander-in-Chief, the Grand Duke Nicholas. The Commissar was ejected, but he transferred himself to Baku and there with Armenian aid established a Bolshevik Government. But the affairs of the Federal Republic did not prosper. Between Georgian and Armenian Christians, and the Tatar Moslems of Azerbaijan, were antipathies of race and faith not to be suddenly diminished or held in check. Each people, too, had its own particular interests to consult. Jealousies and rivalries were acute; Erivan and Azerbaijan had deep suspicions that Georgia was scheming to use the Federal Republic for converting all Trans-Caucasia into a Georgian state. A fundamental opposition of outlook also existed on the part of each. All three desired to come under British protection; but that being impossible Azerbaijan stood out for Turkey, Armenia for Russia, and Georgia for Germany as the powers best suited and able to assure Trans-Caucasian independence. To the leaders of each of the federated peoples, in fact, the essentials of a rapidly changing situation ever appeared different.

The Treaty of Brest Litovsk, between Germany and Russia, signed on March 3 1918, was followed by a Turkish invasion of Armenian territory in order to occupy the districts awarded Turkey under the treaty. Batum was another district allotted to Turkey, subject to self-determination by the inhabitants; but Georgia believed that with German aid the province might be preserved for herself. In effect the Federal Republic was now at war with Turkey, though with no intention or possibility of concerted action amongst its peoples, and the Turkish occupa- tion proceeded in spite of resistance on Armenian territory. Batum, too, was entered by Turkish forces on April 15. In these circumstances the republic resolved, on April 23, to make a formal declaration of independence, and to open peace negotia- tions with the Turks. But a German penetration of Trans- Caucasia from the Ukraine was now in sight. Odessa and Sevastopol were both in German hands at the beginning of May, and Georgian policy looked more and more definitely to Germany, to the exclusion of the wider interests of the Federal Republic. A few days later German and Turkish delegates reached Batum

to negotiate peace between Georgia and Turkey. This matter completed, Georgia and Germany concluded a treaty between themselves, by which German troops were admitted to the country, and Georgia received promises of protection, the maintenance of her independence and financial assistance.

As has been said, a Russian Bolshevik Government had been established at Baku after the founding of the Federal Republic of Trans-Caucasia. The area it controlled was small, but the Government had the advantages of position, supplies of fuel and food, and the comparative wealth afforded by the large and prosperous population. The Russian element behind the Government was also supported by local Armenians, a section of the inhabitants numbering some 60,000. These Armenians were under the influence of the Dashnakists, the Armenian revolutionary society of extremists, whose methods were vio- lence, and who leaned towards Bolshevik Russia. And now, early in March, when the affairs of Trans-Caucasia were at their lowest, and the existence of the Federal state hung in the balance, the Russians and Armenians of Baku ejected the Tatar Moslems of the city, and massacred some thousands. During the suc- ceeding three months, massacre of Moslems by Armenians spread to various parts of what had been Russian Armenia. With Georgia in private alliance with Germany, and Armenians massacring Azerbaijan Moslems whenever opportunity offered, the Federal Republic of Trans-Caucasia had become to all merely an empty name.

The Federal Republic was dissolved on May 26 1918. On that date Azerbaijan and Georgia each proclaimed its separate existence as an independent republic and formed a National Government; at the same time the National Council of Armenia took control of Armenian affairs. As the independent Bolshevik Government of Baku still existed Elisavetopol became the capital of Azerbaijan for the time being. Turkish troops were now admitted to the Tatar Republic; and others, followed by Germans from Georgia, reoccupied Tabriz, the capital of Persian Azerbaijan, at the end of May. The Pan-Islamic policy of Turkey appeared to be prospering at this time, and its leaders looked eastward to making their next step into central Asia. With this as a possibility a small British column under Gen. Dunsterville advanced from Mesopotamia through western Persia to the Caspian, and passing thence by sea reached and occupied Baku on Aug. 16 1918. Its purpose was to countenance and support the Russo-Armenian force holding the town and to assist the republic of Erivan, and thus prevent Turkish or German operations in central Asia. But the assistance and cooperation expected of the local troops did not come up to anticipation; a large Turkish force compelled the British to reembark on Sept. 13; and Baku fell the following day. But Turkish and German operations in these regions were drawing to an end. The Armistice between the Allies and Turkey, signed on Oct. 30, and between the Allies and Germany 12 days later ensured the evacuation of Trans-Caucasian and Persian ter- ritory by Turkish and German troops. A British force from Persia reoccupied Baku on Nov. 16; a British garrison was placed in Batum on Dec. 27; and before long a whole British division had reached Caucasia to ensure the evacuation of Turks and Germans. The railways were repaired, and through traffic between the inland republic and Batum resumed under a British Board of Railway Control, thus preventing the acute friction of the past.

On the withdrawal of Turkish troops from Baku the Govern- ment of Azerbaijan was established there, and endeavoured to organize an administration. This was a work of infinite difficulty, for though the Moussavet party in power meant well, every kind of administrative experience and knowledge was lacking. The British military authorities assisted, but soon found it necessary to take over multifarious civil functions, from pro- viding and rationing foodstuffs, suppressing profiteers, working the oil and shipping industries, and managing the State bank, to the administration of Posts and Telegraphs, Police and Justice. For the first time since Russian Government ceased in Trans-Caucasia order appeared in the republic. But the