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cultivated area and their large expanse of pasturage, and the country of the Danube valley by its large area of arable and small amount of meadow-land. The territories of Styria and Carinthia have an inter- mediate character, being mostly thickly wooded.

The chief crops are rye, oats, barley, potatoes, maize, pulse, tur- nips and flax; but the supply falls far short of the demand. In 1913 3'5 % of the arable land lay fallow, and in 1918 no less than 17-5 %. Fruit-growing is wide-spread, but vine-culture has attained impor- tance in Lower Austria only. The timber output, on the other hand, is very important, the forests in 1910 covering 11,912 sq. m., of which 8.576 were covered with pine forest and 926 with de- ciduous trees only. Stock-raising is important in many districts, but in 1921 by no means met demands. Excellent breeds of cattle are reared in Vorarlberg (Montafon breed), Tirol (Tuxertal, Puster- tal, etc., breeds), Carinthia and Styria (Noric Alpine breed). In 1918, there were 1,841,883 head of cattle (of which 901,894. were milch-cows) and 1,269,875 swine. Good breeds of horses are raised, especially in Salzburg (Pinzgau breed), but the total number scarcely reached 200,000. There were some 300,000 sheep and a slightly smaller number of goats. Poultry abounds (some six million head in 1918). Bee-culture thrives in Carinthia and Styria in combina- tion with the cultivation of buckwheat.

Minerals. -The mining output of 1915 included some 75,000 tons of coal (almost all from Lower Austria), 2-4 million tons of brown coal (1-8 from Styria), 1-8 million tons of iron ore (almost all from Styria), 17,000 tons of copper ore (almost all from Salzburg), 12,500 tons of lead ore (almost all from Carinthia), 14,000 tons of graphite (almost all from Styria), considerable quantities of mag- nesite (from Styria and Lower Austria), some sulphur and ores of zinc and antimony, and (from Styria) bitumen. The output of salt was 160,000 tons; of which 100,000 tons were produced in Upper Austria, the remainder in Styria, Salzburg and Tirol. Natural gas is obtained at Wels in Upper Austria.

The most important mines are: The iron mines in the Styrian Erzberg (Eisenerz and Vordernberg) and those of Hiittenberg in Carinthia; the copper mines of Mitterberg in Salzburg; the lead mines of Bleiberg in Carinthia; and the brown-coal mines of Koflach and Voitsberg, Wies and Eibiswald, Fohnsdorf and Leoben, in Styria, Wolfsegg in Upper Austria. The salt mines have already been mentioned. The smelting industries produced 500,000 tons of pig iron (almost exclusively in Styria), some 5,000 tons of copper (in Salzburg), about 8,000 tons of lead (in Carinthia), besides copper sulphate, mineral colours, a little silver and a very little gold. The output decreased after 1915 but was recovering in 1921. With the exception of iron ore and magnesite, the minerals do not suffice to meet the needs of Austria herself ; she can only supply one-seventh part of the coal she requires.

Manufactures. The industries of Vienna are very varied. In- dustrial areas of the first rank are: Lower Austria, Vorarlberg and Upper Styria; next to them come Upper Austria and Middle Styria. The largest iron works are in Styria (Eisenberg, Vordernberg, Hie- flau, Donawitz, Zeltweg, Kapfenberg, Miirzzuschlag) ; in Lower Austria (Waidhofen an der Ybbs) ; in Upper Austria (Linz, Wels). There are also machine factories in the above territories, especially in the neighbourhood of Vienna. Iron smallware, such as scythes and sickles, is chiefly made in the districts along the border between Upper and Lower Austria and Styria ; Steyr is an important centre. Locomotives are made in Vienna, Wiener Neustadt, Graz and else- where; small arms in Steyr, Vienna and Ferlach; carriages and automobiles in Vienna and Graz; bicycles at Steyr and Graz; river boats at Linz. Lower Austria (Berndorf and elsewhere) is noted for the manufacture of base metal goods. Carinthia produces leaden articles.

The cotton and woollen industries are important, especially in the Vienna district, Vorarlberg and near Linz and Graz. Important, also, are the jute industry of Lower Austria and the manufactures of machine-made knitted goods in Vorarlberg. The coarser kinds of woollen cloth are made in Tirol and Vorarlberg; clothing, silk goods and articles of luxury of all kinds are made in Vienna, hats in Vienna and Graz. Vienna is also noted for the manufacture of furniture. The wood, cellulose, pasteboard and paper, and paper- goods industries of Lower Austria, Styria and Upper Austria are very important. Leather and leather goods are chiefly produced in Lower Austria; shoes and gloves in Vienna. The Vienna district and the foot-hills of the Alps are flour-milling centres, while distilling and malting are chiefly carried out in Vienna. The chemical in- dustry is notably active in Vienna and its neighbourhood; also the manufacture of colours and varnishes. The manufacture of ex- . plosives is centred in Middle Styria (Deutsch-Landsberg), and there are chemical works in the Alps, when water-power is available. The pottery and glass-making industries are also noteworthy. Vienna is the chief centre of printing and the graphic arts, and of artistic trades generally.

The manufacture of tobacco is a State monopoly (there are fac- tories in Vienna, Hainburg, Fiirstenfeld and other places). (R. Si.)

CONSTITUTION AND ADMINISTRATION

The collapse of the Austrian Empire in the autumn of 1918 was an event which all nationalities living within its frontiers

anticipated. They were thus prepared, sooner or later, to set themselves up as independent states. Serious resistance was not to be expected, as the military debdcle had been so complete as to prevent any possibility of stopping the process of disin- tegration. A premonitory symptom had been the Imperial Manifesto of Oct. 16 1918, in which the Emperor Charles an- nounced his resolve, in accordance with the wish of his peoples, to transform Austria into a Federal State in which every nation- ality was to form a separate state-entity within its own ethno- graphical limits. Not many years previously such a manifesto might have initiated a happy development by which the World War would have been avoided and Austria perhaps been con- solidated. But now it was too late, and the manifesto was thus no more than a signal given in the highest quarters of the ap- proaching general dissolution.

Independently of the Imperial Manifesto, and by a procedure purely revolutionary, the German members of the former Austrian Reichsrat, on Oct. 21 1918, established themselves as the Provisional National Assembly of German-Austria, and as such established the new state of " German-Austria," for which a provisional constitution was adopted on Oct. 30. The new constitution, which was republican, was carried at once, and without the least resistance being encountered, though it was not till Nov. 1 1 that the Emperor Charles issued a proclamation, countersigned by his last prime minister, Lammasch, in which he declared himself ready to acknowledge beforehand whatever decision German-Austria might come to concerning her future constitution, and renounced all share in affairs of State. The revolution out of which the new German-Austria emerged was thus not only bloodless, but was carried through without any open struggle. It was, none the less, a revolution; for the constitu- tion of German-Austria was not evolved by any legal process out of the constitution of old Austria. Between the two lies the break in the continuity of constitutional practice, and it is for this reason that German-Austria cannot, any more than Czechoslovakia, be looked upon as identical with the old Austria.

The Provisional Constitution. The first provisional consti- tution of German-Austria, created by the resolution of Oct. 30 1918 and supplemented by several later laws (above all, that of Nov. 14 1918 on the taking-over of State authority in the Territories, and that of Nov. 19 1918), exhibits an extreme type of democratic parliamentary government. The supreme power in the State, executive as well as legislative, was con- ferred upon the Provisional National Assembly. This exercised its legislative power directly through its enactments. Its exec- utive power, however, was exercised through a Council of State (Staatsraf) elected from among its members, the three parliamentary parties Christian Socialists, Social Democrats and German Nationalists being proportionally represented. The Council of State thus formed a parliamentary committee which functioned as a sort of head of the State.

In contradistinction to the old Austrian Reichsrat, with its Upper and Lower House, the first legislative body of German- Austria was organized on the single-chamber system. Each of the three parties elected a president to act as speaker of the parliament. These three presidents were coequal and occupied the chair week by week in an agreed rotation.

The legislative power of the Provisional National Assembly was restricted, in that legislation on certain 'matters, which under the old system appertained to the autonomy of the so- called Crown Territories (Kronldnder) of I he Austrian Empire, was reserved for the Provisional Territorial Assemblies, which had taken the place of the former Territorial Diets (Landtage) in which the functions of self-government had been vested. For these, under the style of "Territories" (Lander), remained within their old frontiers though, of course, only to the extent in which they formed part of the new State: viz. Lower and Upper Austria, Salzburg and Vorarlberg, in their entirety; Styria and Carinthia, with the exception of areas inhabited by Yugoslavs; Tirol, without its southern part mainly inhabited by Italians. Out of the former " crown lands, " Bohemia,