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Rh that the Government of the United States had already recognized Czechoslovakia as a belligerent Power and the Czechoslovak National Council as a belligerent Government, as well as the justice of the national aspirations of the Southern Slavs. It was', therefore, for these peoples themselves to decide which of the resolutions of the Austrian Government were acceptable to them. Upon this the request for an armistice made by the Emperor Charles at the beginning of October was declared to be no longer in force. During October independent national representative bodies assembled in Prague, Agram, Laibach and Vienna. The Emperor's dominions thus dissolved and slipped from his grasp. These internal movements led to the disintegration of the armies, which up to this moment had fought bravely. The Governments of the several countries constituting the monarchy, Hungary leading the way, sum- moned their co-nationals to the defence of their particular frontiers or called them back home. The Emperor Charles tried to save what still could be saved. He was prepared to conclude a separate peace with the enemy on terms which would make possible the continuance of the old monarchy, even though with diminished territory and as a loose aggre- gation of separate territorial groups under the dynasty of Habsburg-Lorraine.

On Oct. 24 Count Julius Andrassy succeeded Burian as Foreign Minister, in order to begin negotiations for a separate peace. Three days later the office of minister-president was given to Heinrich Lammasch, professor of international law and a well-known pacifist. On the same -day renewed proposals for an armistice were made to President Wilson, and the peace pourparlers, which had never been entirely interrupted, were resumed in Switzerland with representatives of the Entente by various emissaries of the Habsburg Monarchy. Once more, however, they reached no result. At the end of October, after the revolution in Hungary (see HUNGARY: History), and when increasing numbers of the troops fighting in Italy had started homewards, the Austro-Hungarian army command asked for an armistice from the Italians, who were victoriously advancing against the demoralized and dissolving Austro-Hungarian forces. This was granted on Nov. 3 1918 on conditions of piti- less severity. Austria-Hungary had to reduce her army at once to a peace footing only 20 divisions were excepted; to evacuate all enemy territories still occupied by her troops; to surrender to the enemy large portions of Austrian territory, and to hand over all war material actually in these terri- tories, as well as the whole of her fleet. By this means all resistance was made impossible even after the expiry of the armistice. Utterly defenceless, the Emperor Charles had to place his own fate and that of the ancient monarchy in the hands of the victors. The latter also demanded free passage for their armies over all roads, railways and waterways of the monarchy. Germany's resistance was thus to be broken by new dangers threatening her from the south. It was only under protest, and bowing to necessity, that the Emperor Charles gave his consent to these demands, which promised to be fatal to his ally. The negotiations for a separate peace were indeed even now still carried on by the diplomatists who remained true to the dynasty, but they hardly met with a hearing from the Entente Powers.

The process of dissolution ran its course in the old monarchy. On Nov. ii 1918 the Emperor Charles renounced all share in the business of government in Austria; the Lammasch Govern- ment retired. The Emperor Charles did not, however, renounce his crown. On the following day, in the Austrian National Assembly, a republic was proclaimed (see AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC or), which was at first intended to form a component part of the new German Republic. On Nov. 16 the republican form of government was introduced in Hungary. The ancient Austro- Hungarian Monarchy had thereby ceased to exist, and its role as a European Great Power was at an end.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Up to 1921 no comprehensive critical account had

.been published of Austro-Hungarian foreign policy in 1910-8.

The Foreign Policy of Austria-Hungary (1920), No. I. of the hand-

343

books prepared under the direction of the Historical Section of the British Foreign Office, is a summary survey. The period 1875 to 1914 is treated in an inadequate and one-sided way in Jean Lar- meroux, La Politique exterieure de i ' Autriche-Hongrie (2 vols., 1918). The foreign policy of the monarchy is discussed in its connexion with world politics in. among other works, A. Debidour, Histoire diplomatique de I'Etirope, vol. iv. (i9 l8 ) ; Ernst Reventlow, Politische Vorgeschichte des grossen Kriegs (1919); Julius Hashagen, Umrisse der Weltpolitik, vol. ii. (2nd ed. 1919); Gottlob Egelhaaf, Geschichte der neuesten Zeit, vol. ii. (8th ed.) and Heinrich Friedjung, Das Zeitalter des Imperialismus, vol. ii. (1922). Friedrich Wieser's study, Oesterreichs Ende (1919), and F. Kleinwiichter's book, Der Untergang Oesterreich-Ungarns, throw more light on the internal disintegration of the Habsburg Monarchy, but also contain in- teresting discussions of foreign policy. Meisser's Politische Chronik der Oesterreich-Ungarischen Monarchic (1910-8) and Schulthe's Geschichtskalender (1910-8) contain extracts from the reports of the proceedings of the delegations and the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments and other important documents and speeches. Of the official publications of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs should be mentioned: Diplomatische Aktenstiicke betreffend die Ereignisse am Balkan, /j. August 1912 bis 6. November 1913 (Vienna 1914); Diplomatische. Aktenstiicke betreffend die Beziehung Oesterreich- Ungarns zu Italien in der Zeit iiom 22. Juli 1914 bis 27. August 1916 (Vienna 1916); Diplomatische Aktenstilcke zur Vorgeschichte des Krieges 1914 and Diplomatische Aktenstiicke zur Vorgeschichte des Krieges: Ergdnzungen und Nachtrdge zum Oesterreichisch-Un- garischen Rotbuch (3 parts [June 28-Aug. 27 1914], Vienna 1920). At the instance of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs there appeared Richard Gooss, Das Wiener Kabinet und die Entstehung des Welt- krieges (1919). A. F. Pribram's Die politischen Geheimvertrcige Oesterreich-Ungarns 1879 bis 1914 (1920) also contains a detailed history of the development of the Triple Alliance treaties (English trans, by A. C. Coolidge, 1920). Valuable information as to Austro- Ilungarian foreign policy is to be found in memoirs of German and Austro-Hungarian statesmen and military commanders which have appeared since the end of the war. Among these may be especially indicated : G. Jagow, Ursachen und Ausbruch des Weltkrieges (1919) ; Paul von Hindenburg, Aus meinem Leben (1920); Theodor von Bethmann Hollweg, Betrachtitngen zum Weltkrieg (1919) ; Erich Ludendorff, Kriegserinnerungen (1919); Urkunden der Obersten Heeresleitung fiber Hire Tatigkeit 1916 bis 1918 (1920) ; A. von Tir- pitz, Erinnerungen (1919); Karl Helfferich, Der Weltkrieg (3 vols., 1919); Karl Hertling, Ein Jahr in der Reichskanzlei (1919); A. von Cramon, Unser Oeslerreich-Ungarischer Bundgenosse im Weltkrieg (1920); Ottokar Czernin, Im Weltkriege (1919); Julius Andrassy, Diplomatic und Weltkrieg (1920) ; L. Windischgrsitz, Vom roten zum schwarzen Prinzen (1920); Auffenberg-Komarow, Aus Oesterreichs Hohe und Niedergang (1921); Erich von Falkenhayn, Die Tatigkeit der Obersten Heeresleitung 1914 bis 1916 (1919) ; Matthias Erzberger, Erlebnisse im Weltkriege (1920) ; J. V. Szilassy, Der Untergang der Donaumonarchie (1921). Separate problems of Austro-Hungarian foreign policy are treated among others by Leopold Chlumecky, Die Agonie des Dreibundes (1915); Wilhelm Fraknoi, Kritische Stu- dien zur Geschichte des Dreibundes (1916); Severus, Zehn Monate italienischer Neutralitdt (1915); Th. v. Sosnosky, Die Balkanpolitik Oesterreich-Ungarns seit 1866 (2 vols., 1914); Die Politik im Habs- burgerreich (1912); Berthold Molden, Alois Graf Aehrenthal: Seeks Jahre ausserer Politik Oesterreich-Ungarns (1917). (A. F. PR.)

AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OF.—The republic of Austria, reconstituted after the collapse in 1918 of the old empire (see AUSTRIAN EMPIRE) is bounded on the E. by Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Yugoslavia, on the S. by Yugoslavia and Italy, on the W. by Switzerland, Liechtenstein and the Lake of Constance, on the N. by Germany (Bavaria) and Czechoslovakia.

Under the new regime, Austria had in Aug. 1921, including the Burgenland (which was in process of being handed over by Hungary), an area of 32,491 sq. m., somewhat less than that of Ireland. Its population is less than one-fifth that of England. It belongs almost entirely to the Danubian region and for the greater part to the Eastern Alps; a small part of it embraces the outlying spurs of this mountain system, which form a connexion with the Carpathian; and another part comprises the Austrian Granite Plateau, the most southerly portion of the Boic massif. But Austria's frontiers, especially towards the Alps, are not natural boundaries, and their long extension is a source of geographical and economic inconvenience. Czechoslovakia received three minor border territories of Lower Austria; Italy advanced as far as the Adriatic watershed, and even passed beyond it in various places in the basins of the Inn and Drau (Drava); Yugoslavia received South-Eastern Carinthia and Southern Styria as far as the Posruck and the Mur. Thus the closed territories of Tirol and those of the Carinthian basin