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the Czechs had set up a national committee, with Kramarz at its head, which adopted the programme of " a Czechoslovak State sovereign and independent." They proposed the im- peachment of the minister responsible for the nomination of the chiefs of the districts, and declared that they would take no part in revising the constitution. His plans having thus been com- pletely shipwrecked, Seidler resigned on July 22 1918.

Hussarek Ministry. Hussarek, 1 who was appointed prime minister on July 24, declared his programme to be parliamen- tary government, with reconciliations of the nationalities, and constitutional and administrative reform. The Czechs, however, declared that, so far as they were concerned, nothing had been altered. Hussarek got through a six months' provisional budget with the help of the Poles against the votes of the Ukrainians, a proof that he had shelved the partition of Galicia. Immediately afterwards the Reichsrat adjourned for the summer holidays (July 26), without having ventured on any steps towards the solution of the great problems of State.

The process of dissolution advanced rapidly, when England on Aug. 17 recognized the Czechoslovaks as an allied nation; to which the Austrian Government replied with the declaration that no such state existed, but only individual traitors. In a communication to the press on Sept. 4 Hussarek insisted that there were no oppressed peoples in Austria, that on the contrary her constitution assured to the several nationalities a status of equal rights like that of no other state on earth, and he gave a warning against its destruction a vain appeal to reason. On Sept. 18 the Czech National Council had already imposed some taxes. On Oct. i Hussarek again gave the Reichsrat a chance; he recognized expressly the right of the peoples to free self-deter- mination, adopted the standpoint of national autonomy, cham- pioned Polish independence, and announced the union of all the Southern Slavs of Austria by constitutional means. This pro- gramme met with a cool reception; the Poles by now were expect- ing a new organization from the Peace Congress; the Southern Slavs desired union with those of their race in Hungary also; the Czechs opposed the division of the administrative commission into two parts; they did not want autonomy for their nation, but incorporation of the German Bohemians in their State, and refused all negotiations.

The Emperor now made a last despairing attempt; a manifesto of Oct. 16 proposed the conversion of Austria not of Hungary, it is true into a federal state composed of free nations, each with the territory which it occupied. This was far from resulting in any cooperation of the nationalities in realizing their former ideal; on the contrary, they felt themselves free from all con- straint, and formed Governments having no connexion with the old state. On Oct. 19 the Ukraine National Council was set up in Lemberg, and the Slovene-Croat in Agram; on Oct. 20 the Czechs followed suit in Prague, on the 2ist the German delegates in Vienna, on the 25th the Magyars in Pest.

Lammasch Ministry. The summoning of the last Ministry of the Austrian Empire, under Lammasch from Oct. 27-31 1918, could only be regarded as an attempt on the part of the impotent Monarch to bring about a friendly liquidation between the peoples who were separating from each other. But since the non-German nationalities were not prepared to accept such a peaceful settle- ment, the liquidation between the monarchy and the new republic was confined to German-Austria, and Lammasch's friendly offices might certainly be thanked for the fact that in this quarter the settlement was achieved quite bloodlessly, in favourable contrast with the two years of fighting between Czechs, Poles, Ruthenians, Magyars, Rumanians, Southern Slavs and Italians. Lammasch and his ministers shared their official premises peacefully with the new secretaries of state of the Austrian Republic, and his last official act was to send out posters with an appeal for peace and quiet. (For the later history, see AUSTRIA, REPUBLIC OP.)

1 Baron Max Hussarek (b. 1860) professor of canon law at the university of Vienna, was of clerical leanings; he was Minister of Education from Nov. 3 1911 to his appointment as head of the Cabinet (July-Oct. 1918).

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Oesterreichische Politische Chronik, pub- lished by Neissel (Vienna 1910-8), contains among other things an account of the most important transactions of all the public bodies (Parliament, the Delegations, etc.) ; Neuere Gesetzgebung Oesterreichs nach den Reichstagsverhandlungen (Vienna) ; H. Kelsen, Reichsrats- wahlordnung (1907); Hauptprobleme der Staatsrechtlehre (1911); Verfassungsgesetze (1919); R. Charmatz, Der demokratischnationale Bundesstaat Oesterreich (1904); Oesterreich als Volksstaat (1918); Deutsch^oesterreichische Politik (1907); F. Kleinwachter, Untergang der oesterreich-ungarischen Monarchie (1920); Seton-Watson, The Future of Austria (1907); The Southern Slav Question; Absolutism in Croatia; Zd. Tobalka, Das bohmische Volk (1916); J. Zolger, Staats- rechtliche Ausgleich (1916); P. Samassa, Volkerstreit im Habsburger- reich (1910); K. Reuner, Oesterreichs Erneuerung (1916); R. Sieger, Oesterreichischer Staatsgedanke (1916): C. Brockhausen, Oester- reichische Verwaltungsreform (1916); Fr. Tezner, Entwicklung des Parlamentarismus in Oesterreich- Ungarn (1914); Fr. Wieser, Oester- reichs Ende (1919) ; Th. Sosnosky, Politik im Habsburgerreich (1913) ; R. Laun, Nationalitdtenrecht (1917); J. Barnreiter, Die bohmische Frage (1910) ; V. Lischka, Deutsch-Oesterreich unter slawischer Herr- schaft (1913) ; E. Zenker, Nationale Organisation in Oesterreich (1916); L. Wimmer, Die Ostmark (1917); Munin, Oesterreich nach dem Kriege (1915); W. Schilling-Singalewitsch, Sonderstellung Galiziens (1917); A. Skene, Nationaler Ausgleich in Mahren (1910); L. Czwiklinski, Das Konigreich Polen (1917); E. Plener, Reden (1911). (C. BR.)

ECONOMIC CONDITIONS

Pre-War Period. During the years 1910-4, immediately pre- ceding the World War, economic conditions in Austria showed no uniform tendency, for in many fields the signs pointed to a crisis, while in others developments seemed full of promise. These conditions were undoubtedly determined by the critical political situation from 1908 onward, which made it probable that, sooner or later, the Habsburg Monarchy would have to fight for its right to exist. It is true that nobody could have foreseen coming events; but things kept on occurring which counselled prudence, and threatened the economic situation from without. Added to this the state saw itself compelled, in view of the political situation, to increase its expenditure on armaments; and since this expenditure grew at a rate with which the revenue could not keep pace, the Government had constantly to raise large sums by borrowing in the open market, and in 1912 had even to raise a big loan in America. All this, combined with the stringency of the international money-market, meant a heavy burden on Austrian national economy. Voices were not lacking which, in view of Austria's relatively small share in foreign investments, ascribed the deterioration of the trade balance to the fact that the public bodies were " living beyond their means." (From 1875 onwards the balance of trade had been in favour of Austria; in 1907 it turned against her, and from this time the adverse balance showed a steady increase until 1913, when it slightly diminished.)

According to the census of 1910, out of 16 million persons following an occupation 8-5 millions were engaged in agriculture and forestry, 3-6 in industry, 1-6 in commerce and transport, 2-3 in the public services, liberal professions, etc. Agriculture is thus the basis of economic existence for the greater part of the population; and the favourable crop statistics for the last years preceding the war, and especially the record harvest of the year 1912, must have had a beneficial influence upon the economic situation. The production of the most important crops for the whole of Austria is shown in Table I.

TABLE I. Crop Statistics. (Thousands of tons.)

1910.

1911.

1912.

1913.

Wheat

1,539

1,574

1,861

1,594

Rye Barley Leguminous crops ....

2,657 1,446 258

2,597 i,59i 237

2,921 1,676 245

2,656

i,7i9 232

We must consider, in this connexion, that the prosperity of certain industries depends directly upon the results of the harvest. It was only in years when the harvest was most favourable that Austria- Hungary was able to provide for her own requirements in corn; for export purposes only barley was of considerable importance, while wheat, and above all, of recent years, maize had to be imported. In Table II. is shown the excess of imports of grain over exports (+), or of exports over imports.