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306 disturbing factor. During 1911–5 the Commonwealth gained 99,393 by immigration; during 1916–9, 24,016.

A preliminary census count of the census of 1921 gave the population of the Commonwealth as 5,419,702, an increase of 969,721 since 1911. In the individual states the figures were: New South Wales 2,096,393, increase 449,659; Victoria 1,530,114, increase 214,563; Queensland 755,573, increase 149,760; South Australia 494,867, increase 86,309; Western Australia 329,228, increase 47,114; Tasmania 213,527, increase 22,316.

The population included 2,751,781 males and 2,667,921 females. In Victoria there was an excess of females over males of 22,294. Full-blood aboriginals and the population of the territories are not included; the proportion of whites in the territories being insignificant. In accordance with these returns New South Wales would gain an extra seat in the House of Representatives, and Victoria lose one.

Social Conditions.—The Australian people are almost wholly British in character; 97·54% of the total are of British origin, 1·21% come from foreign European countries and 1·16% from foreign non-European countries. The average standard of education is high and illiteracy almost unknown. The wage rate is generally high. The cost of living in Australia compares well with the cost in most civilized countries. In 1911 the statistician to the Commonwealth Government, Mr. G. H. Knibbs, instituted an enquiry into the cost of living. Taking four sets of family budgets, (a) of families with £200 a year and over, divided into families of four members and under four members, (b) of families with less than £200 a year, divided similarly, he found that the average percentage of income spent on housing was 13·70, on food 29·30, on clothing 12·72, on fuel and light 3·46, on "other items" (including amusements, thrift, etc.) 40·82%. This last figure gives the best indication of general prosperity, i.e. of a substantial margin out of wages and salaries for non-essential outgoings. The percentage of income expenditure on food in working-class families in Australia was then 36%, as compared with 57% in the United Kingdom, and a general average of over 50% in all other countries for which statistics were available. The cost of living showed in Australia a lower increase consequent upon the war than in most countries. For example, taking 174 as the index number for Sydney in 1913, that index number had risen to 268 (not much more than 50%) in 1919.

The Australian birth-rate was 28·25 in 1913 and 23·78 in 1919. The percentage of illegitimate births to total births was 5·30 in 1919. The marriage rate (number of marriages per 1,000 of mean pop.) was 7·88 in 1919. The celebration of a marriage is more easily effected in Australia than in England. The facilities for divorce differ in various states, divorces being granted more readily in New South Wales and Victoria than in the other states. The total of Australian divorces in 1918 was 721.

A disquieting feature of Australian social life is the preponderance of the urban over the rural population. In South Australia more than one-half of the total population of the state (380,000 sq. m. in extent) is concentrated in the city of Adelaide. In Victoria 50%, in New South Wales 41% of the total population is in one city, and in the whole Commonwealth 42% of the population is contained within six cities. The charm of the cities is great; the conditions in the "back country" are often hard. By cheap railway rates for the farmers' goods, by pushing such of the conveniences of civilization as are under state control as far forward as possible, and by other means, the states and the Commonwealth strive to counterbalance the call of the cities. But all effort seems to be in vain. The proportion of the urban to the total population is growing. In 1906 Sydney had 35% of the total population of New South Wales, Melbourne had 42% of the population of Victoria, and in the whole Commonwealth six cities held 35·49% of the population. Now the proportions have greatly increased as seen above.

Public Health.—Though part of Australia is within the tropics there is practically no tropical disease, and there is an absence also of small-pox, hydrophobia and other diseases which are known in some parts of Europe. The death-rate from all causes in 1919 was 12·8. It is the lowest death-rate in the world except one. Lately there has been a betterment in regard to the infantile death-rate, which the hot summers ruling over the greater part of the Commonwealth make the chief cause of public health anxiety. In 1901 it stood at 103·61 per thousand, in 1919 at 69·21 per thousand. The Commonwealth Government pays a maternity bonus of £5 for every child born of a white woman resident in Australia. All the states have public health organizations to deal specially with infant welfare. Apart from infantile mortality, the chief foes to human life in Australia are tuberculosis, cancer, diseases of the heart and violence.

Education.—The Australian system of elementary education is free, compulsory, undenominational and usually secular. Secondary education is not free, but a generous system of bursaries makes education to the stage of a university degree available to the poorest in most states. There is also a good system of agricultural and technical colleges. In no state is denominational religion taught in the state schools; but private denominational schools exist, being maintained especially by the Roman Catholic Church.

Production and Industry.—The early stage of the federation was marked by a severe drought which checkecl for a time the development of prosperity. From 1905 the growth of prosperity was very great until the check given by the World War and another severe drought. The disturbance to economic conditions caused by that war takes away a great deal of the value of comparative figures. The following figures appear, as regards 1918, more favourable than they really are since the value of the £ sterling if expressed in goods had depreciated seriously since 1914. Total Commonwealth production: 1909 £174,195,000; 1913 £218,103,000; 1918 £298,669,000. Australia is chiefly a pastoral country and her pastoral products represent nearly a third of the total. Her exports alone from the pastoral industry in 1918–9 were valued at £57,624,791. Drought is still a serious enemy of this industry and the effects of recent droughts are reflected in the live-stock returns. In 1910 Australia had 92 million sheep. This fell to 69 millions in 1915, grew to 87 millions in 1918 and in 1919 fell to 84 millions. Cattle have done better and in 1919 had reached the highest record number, nearly 13 millions. Horses number 2 millions. Agriculture, which in 1909 produced £41,000,000, in 1918 produced £58,000,000; and dairy produce and bee-farming, which in 1909 produced £15,000,000, in 1918 produced £34,000,000.

Mining keeps up a steady contribution to the national prosperity, £23,000,000 in 1909, £26,000,000 in 1918. Gold production lately has been of decreasing, silver and copper of increasing importance. Coal has improved both in quantity raised and in price realized.

The manufacturing industries of Australia progress with each year, and it is clear that the British and American manufacturer must reckon on strong Australian competition in Pacific markets. In 1909 the manufacturing industries produced £40,000,000, in 1918 £75,000,000, (i.e., added that value to raw materials).

In spite of the drain upon manhood and capital during the World War Australian industrial progress continued. Australia, under the influence of a strongly protective tariff, is entering each year on new fields of industry. In the iron and steel industry one new concern is producing 300,000 tons of steel a year. In shipbuilding Australian cost per ton produced is at the moment lower than that of Great Britain; in 1923 a protective duty of 25% is to be imposed on British ships and of 30% on foreign ships coming to trade in Australian waters. Australia is making a vigorous effort also to encourage the woollen textile industry, and there is mooted a project to give Federal Government assistance to raise a capital of £14,000,000 for textile mills. Easily accessible coal on the mainland and excellent water-power in Tasmania favour manufacturing development, and in many great industries the cost of labour in the Commonwealth is now less than in Great Britain. British manufacturers are in some notable cases establishing branch factories in Australia.

Forests and fisheries bring an amount of £7,000,000 to the Australian purse. But in neither case is there much progress. The timber resources are usually prodigally wasted; and until very recently there was no attempt at reforestation. The fisheries are not exploited in any systematic fashion, there being little or no deep-sea fishing or fish-curing. In both these matters, however, better things are promised in the future. In 1909 the Federal Government launched the "Endeavour," a vessel specially built to investigate and chart deep-sea fishing grounds. The "Endeavour" has since been engaged in the collection of information regarding the migration, feeding grounds, etc., of fish in the waters off the Australian coast, and it is hoped that the ultimate result will be the foundation of a great fishing industry. In 1912 the Australian Government offered bounties for Australian-cured fish. Nothing material resulted.

Trade and Commerce.—After federation the overseas trade of the Commonwealth increased rapidly. In 1901 the total was valued at £92,130,000; the recent figures have been:—

The bulk of Australia's trade is with Great Britain, and a preferential tariff treatment of British imports is designed to help British as opposed to foreign trade. As a consequence of the war there was a very marked decline of British imports. The following figures of Australian imports will illustrate:—

This is chiefly a war result. Whilst British industry was to a large extent paralyzed, the United States and British possessions captured a bigger share of the Australian markets. But a slight (very slight) decline in British imports was noticeable before the war and after the granting of a preferential tariff. It is hardly reasonable to expect that British imports will ever go back fully to their old position in the Australian market. Australian exports to the United Kingdom showed a dwindling proportion of the total before the war. War regulations, confining the export of certain products to Great