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is reasonable to assume that the Piltdown man lived in the early Pleistocene period, and this inference is borne out by the crude implements of flint and elephant-bone found along with the skull. The crucial importance of Eoanthropus depends upon the fact that it is so obviously close to the main line of descent of modern man. Yet it reveals such astounding simian re- semblances that many perhaps the majority of recent writers want to claim its jaw as a chimpanzee's. This in itself is a strik- ing demonstration of the closeness of the affinity of primitive man and certain apes.

Although in 1921 it was nearly thirty years since Professor Eugen Dubois discovered at Trinil, on the banks of the Solo river in Java, the fossil which he regards as parts of one in- dividual, Pithecanthropus erectus, his monograph on the subject had not been published. Nevertheless the stream of writings on this ape-man was still flowing unabated. In Boule's Les Hommes Fossiles (i52i) the distinguished French palaeontol- ogist still maintained that Pithecanthropus is not a member of the human family, but is an ape. Dubois himself maintains that it is neither a man nor an ape, but a creature really inter- mediate between them. But the endocranial cast of Pithecan- thropus reveals the fact quite definitely and surely that as regards its size, shape and the relative proportion of parts, this so-called ape-man of Java comes within the range of the Hominidae. Moreover, as has already been mentioned, its endocranial cast exhibits a fullness of the postero-superior part of the temporal area which suggests the acquisition of the characteristically human power of speech. The question is still debated whether the thigh-bone found in the same bed as the skull-cap of Pithe- canthropus really belonged to the same individual. It is so obtrusively human that some authorities find a difficulty in associating it with the skull: but the balance of evidence is in favour of both being parts of one individual, the most primitive and the earliest known member of the human family, aberrant both in physical type and habitat. Controversy was still pro- ceeding in 1921 as to the age of the Pithecanthropus remains, and new evidence provided by the Selenka expedition has been used to strengthen the hands of those who object to the claim of Dubois that the remains belong to the Upper Pliocene and maintain that these earliest known representatives of the human family are to be referred definitely to the commencement of the Pleistocene period (Selenka and Blanckenhorn, " Die Pithecan- thropus-Schichten auf Java," Geologische und palaeontologische Ergebnisse der Trinil-Expedition, Leipzig, 1911).

In 1905 the remains of Pithecanthropus represented the only known member of the family Hominidae which did not belong to the genus Homo. Since then, however, the remains of other forms have been revealed that surely deserve generic distinction. In 1907 a human lower jaw was found in the base of the Mauer Sands near Heidelberg, which was described by Schoetensack as a hitherto unknown member of the human family which he called Homo heidelbergensis. But its age and peculiar features remove it so far from all the members of the genus Homo that it is more in accordance with the proper perspective to follow Bonarelli who, has created for its reception the genus Palaeoan- thropus. It is extremely massive and is unlike any other human jaw, not merely by reason of its size but also in the ape-like recession of its chin.

Neanderthal Man. The fossilized remains of part of a cranium and some long bones found in 1856 by some workmen in the Feldhofer Grotto in the Neanderthal Valley (between Elberfeld and Diisseldorf in Rhenish Prussia) are now generally admitted to represent a species of the genus Homo that is definitely differentiated from the species sapiens, to which all the living races of man belong. This extinct species is known as H. neanderthalensis, a name first suggested in 1864 by Prof. King of Galway. In 1848 a fossil skuE was found at Gibraltar by Lt. Flint, but no attention was devoted to it until Busk described it in 1864; and it is now commonly supposed to be a female of the Neanderthal species; but Sera (Soc. romana di Antrop,xv. 1909) considers it to be more primitive and earlier than the true Neanderthal people. Other examples of the Neanderthal species

have been found in the grotto of Spy (Belgium) in 1886, at Krapina (Croatia) in 1899, at La Chapelle-aux-Saints (La Correze, France) in 1908, Le Moustier in the Dordogne (1909) and in the same year at La Ferrassie in the same region. Another skull was found in the same region in 1910, and in 1911 yet another at La Quina (Charente). To this remarkable series of skeletons found in France, which give us so complete a picture of the distinctive features of this brutal extinct species of our genus, is to be added fragments of two jaws found in 1914 at Ehringsdorf near Weimar in Germany (see Hans Virchow, Die menschlichen Skeletreste aus dem Kdmpfischen Bruch im Travertin von Ehringsdorf bei Weimar, Jena, 1920). The vast literature that has accumulated with reference to the other examples of Homo neanderthalensis will be found summarized in M. Boule's Les Hommes Fossiles (Paris, 1921) as well as in H. F. Osborn's Men of the Old Stone Age (New York, 1915) and W. J. Sollas's Ancient Hunters and their Modern Representatives (London, 2nd ed. 1914).

Neanderthal man is now revealed as an uncouth race with an enormous flattened head, very prominent eye-brow ridges and a coarse face. The trunk is short and thick, the robust limbs are short and thick-set: the broad and stopping shoulders lead by a curve to the forwardly projected head set on an abnormally thick neck. The hands are large and coarse and lack the delicate play between thumb and fingers which is found in Homo sapiens. The large brain is singularly defective in the frontal region. It is clear that Neanderthal man's limbs and brain were in- capable of performing those delicately skilled movements that are the distinct prerogative of H. sapiens and the chief means whereby the latter has learned by experiment to understand the world around him, and to acquire the high powers of dis- crimination that enabled him to compete successfully with the brutal strength of the Neanderthal species.

The Neanderthal race of men, with their distinctive Mouster- ian culture, suddenly disappeared from Europe, and were re- placed by immigrants belonging to our own species, who brought with them to Europe the germs of the phase of culture known as Aurignacian. These newcomers were members of the Cro- Magnon race, a very tall people with large dolichocephalic skulls and relatively broad face. They probably entered, Europe from the S., because their settlements are found chiefly near the Mediterranean coastline, in northern Africa, Sicily, Italy, southern France and Spain. The coming of this superior race of highly intelligent men is revealed also by the sudden improve- ment in the technique of the flint-work and the appearance, especially in the caves of southern France, of mural paintings revealing new powers of artistic observation and skill in depict- ing the animals which these people hunted. There is revealed for the first time the genius and the aesthetic feeling of members of our own race. At a later period the members of another race (also dolichocephalic, but with much narrower and more har- monic face than the Cro-Magnon people) began to make their way into Europe from the East, probably by way of Poland and Moravia, Hungary and Bavaria, thence into France. These people are often known as the Briinn race and their culture as Solutrian. The skeletons are found deeply imbedded in loess along with the bones of the woolly mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, giant deer, reindeer, etc. Their culture is distinguished by the wonderful skill in flaking flint implements. Although it lasted only a short time in Europe and never extended as far as Spain or the Mediterranean area, this method of stone-working spread far and wide, to Egypt, Australia and America, and in the latter two countries persisted until the present time. ,

After the Solutrian came the Magdalenian phase of culture, which marked the culmination of the skill and achievement of man before agriculture. This new development was not derived from the Solutrian art, but was brought into Europe and re- placed the latter. It lacked the superb skill of the Solutrian flint-workers, but was characterized by a high degree of ability in painting and sculpture.

. For information concerning the culture of the Magdalenian epoch in France and Spain see,,Osborn's Msn^of th&Old Stone Age; a.\sa the