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70 having been attacked, M. Fuchs had been given permission, on Aug. 28, to aid the French in the Cameroon campaign. The efforts of Dutch nationalists in South Africa to save German South- West Africa from invasion were equally fruitless.

In process of time the whole of Africa, except Abyssinia and the Spanish protectorates, was involved in the war (for the operations see the articles on the various countries). The con- quest of the German colonies was foreseen in the negotiations which preceded Italy's entry into the war, and Article XIII. of the agreement signed in London on April 26 1915 between France^ Russia, Great Britain and Italy, said:

In the event of France and Britain increasing their colonial terri- tories in Africa at the expense of Germany, those two Powers agree in principle that Italy may claim some equitable compensation, particularly as regards the settlement in her favour of the ques- tions relative to the frontiers of the Italian colonies of Eritrea, Somaliland and Libya, and the neighbouring colonies belonging to France and Great Britain.

At a meeting of the Supreme Council at Versailles on May 7 1919 it was agreed to form an inter-Allied Committee to consider the application of Article XIII., which had already been the subject of negotiations. Italian desires went beyond the re- adjustment of frontiers. In north-east Africa she sought a position which would give her all the seaward approaches to Abyssinia. In particular Italy desired to acquire Jibuti, the port of French Somaliland, whence a railway ran to Addis Ab- baba. This desire was intimated to France in the. negotiations preceding the signing of the London agreement of 1915. But Jibuti was the only French port on the Suez Canal route to the East and to Madagascar, as well as the only approach to Abys- sinia France possessed, and she declined to entertain proposals for its surrender. Italy, however, obtained from France a wel- come rectification of the Tripoli-Tunisia frontier, besides valuable railway and commercial privileges in Tunisia. The claim to extend the hinterland of Tripoli to Lake Chad was refused. With Great Britain the negotiations were prolonged; the British Government, however, assented in 1919 in principle to a considerable readjustment of territorial claims in the Cyrenaican-Egyptia'n hinterland, that is in those regions of the Libyan Desert in which lay Kufra and other Senussi strong- holds. The oasis of Jarabub was assigned to Italy. In East Africa the British offered an addition to Italian Somaliland by the transfer to it from Kenya Colony of the western part of the valley of the Juba a rich cotton-growing area together with the port of Kismayu. This offer was accepted in Sept. 1919, but the Italians desired a larger concession and this led to delays in the final settlement. The proposal to transfer Kassala from the Sudan to Eritrea was not entertained. Meanwhile the area administered by the Sudan Government had been enlarged by the conquest of the tributary sultanate of Darfur in 1915.

The distribution of the German colonies after the war has already been stated. The change of masters was readily accepted by the natives. The war itself stimulated trade in various parts of Africa and led to a development of communications (see page 67, Communications).

Politically the greatest movements in Africa in 1919-21 were the continuance of the separatist campaign by the Dutch Nationalist party in South Africa, and the insistent demand of the Egyptians for independence. These movements are described in the articles SOUTH AFRICA and EGYPT.

Another subject which raised large issues was the position of Indians in South and East Africa, but it was of less importance than the growth of race consciousness among the negroes. In- crease of education and of Christianity, the employment of large numbers of Africans in industries, and the lessons taught by the World War, were among the factors which intensified the feeling of racial unity, and led to manifestations of a new anti-white movement a movement different from the simple objection to interference by Europeans or Arabs previously displayed. The new movement had a consciousness of the need of self-develop- ment and progress. Not all the ferment among the negroes was however anti-white, nor was there by 1921 any clear indica- tion what form negro nationalism would ultimately take.

. Exploration: Jean Tilho, " The Exploration of Tiberte, Erdi, Borkou and Ennedi in 1912-1917," Geog. Jnl., vol. Ivi. (1920) ; Capt. Augieras, Le Sahara Occidental (1919) ; F. JR. Cana, " Problems in Exploration: Africa," Geog. Jnl., vol. xxxviii. (1911); " The Sahara in 1915," ibid., vol. xlvi. (1915); I. N. Dracopoli, Through Jubaland to the Lorian Swamp (1914); Sir A. Sharpe, The Backbone of Africa (1921); Rosita Forbes, "Across the Libyan Desert to Kufara," Geog. Jnl., vol. Iviii. (1921).

Geography, Climate, etc.: A. Knox, The Climate of Africa (1911); H. Hubert, Mission Scientifique au Soudan (1916); Documents Scientifiques de la Mission Tilho (1906-9), 3 vols. (1910-4); J. W. Gregory, " African Rift Valley," Geog. Jnl., vol. Ixi. (1920) ; E. H. L. Schwarz, The Desiccation of Africa (N. D. 1918); K. Dove, Wirt- schaftsgeographie von Afrika (1917); R. Tjader, The Big Game of Africa (1911); T. Roosevelt, African Game Trails (1910).

Peoples and Languages: Oric Bates, The Eastern Libyans (1914); C. Meindorf, Introduction to Study of African Languages (1915); A. Werner, Introductory Sketch of the Bantu Languages (1919); Sir H. H. Johnston, A Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi- Bantu Languages (1919) ; G. Foucart, Introductory Questions on African Ethnology (1919).

History, Politics, etc.: C. H. Stigand, Administration in Tropical Africa (1914) ; Sir H. H. Johnston, History of Colonization of Africa by Alien Races (new ed. 1913); ibid., " Political Geog. of Africa before and after the War," Geog. Jnl., vol. xlv. (1915); Evan Lewin, The Germans and Africa (1915); The Disclosures from Germany (1918) contains Prince Lichnowsky's pamphlet, with translation, Herr yon Jagow's reply, and notes; L. Woolf, Empire and Com- merce in Africa (N. D. 1920); J. H. Harris, Dawn in Darkest Africa (1912); D. Crawford, Thinking Black (1912); N. Maclean, Africa in Transformation (1913) ; F. Baltzer, Die Kolonialbahnen, mit beson- derer Beriicksichtigung Afrikas (1916); Col. Godefroy, Transsahariens et Transafricains (1919).

See also the bibliographies under SOUTH AFRICA, EGYPT, etc. For current affairs consult the Geog. Jnl. and the Jnl. of the African Society, and L'Afrique Fran$aise (Paris, monthly). (F. R. C.)

AGA KHAN III. (1877-), Indian Moslem leader (see ). During 1910-21 the Aga Khan's widening influence both on Indian and international affairs was shown in various directions. He had headed the Moslem deputation in 1906 to the Viceroy, Lord Minto, which submitted the case for encouraging abandonment of the studied aloofness of their community from Indian political life; and he was president of the All-India Moslem League thereupon formed during its first constructive years. He initiated the fund, and personally collected more than Rs.30 lakhs, for raising the Mahommedan college at Aligarh to university status, which was effected in 1920. In the immediate pre-war years he did much to soothe Indian Moslem sentiment in respect to the Turco-Italian and two Balkan wars. He was touring amongst his followers in East Africa when the World War broke out, and immediately cabled to the jamats or councils of the millions of Ismailiahs within British territories and on their borders directing his followers to place themselves unreservedly at the disposal of the British authorities. Both in East Africa and on arrival in England he pleaded for combatant participation in the war, but Lord Kitchener reserved him for services no one else could render. When Turkey was drawn into the struggle the Aga Khan issued a stirring manifesto showing that the Allies had no overt designs on Islam, and calling upon the Moslems of the Empire to remain loyal and faithful to their temporal allegiance. His immediate followers provided a solid phalanx of whole-hearted support of Britain, which had a most steadying influence in sterilizing the efforts of impatient headstrong elements. Secret missions of great diplomatic importance in Egypt, Switzerland and elsewhere were entrusted to His Highness, and enemy anger found scope not only in bitter newspaper attacks but in designs upon his life. His great influence was reënforced by his close and intimate contact with leading Allied statesmen and the breadth and liberality of his outlook on the problems of reconstruction. His remarkable study of Indian and Middle Eastern affairs in India in Transition (1918) was not without considerable effect in the final shaping of reforms under the India Act of 1919, and was consistent in broad principle with his post-war criticisms of the British Government's Mesopotamian and Arabian policy.

The Aga Khan laboured unceasingly to secure mitigation of the Allied terms toward Turkey, and joined in many representations, public and private, both at the Peace Conference and subsequently, as to the immense importance to Great