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Rh metropolis which its geographical position entitles it to be. But during the last quarter of the 19th century active steps were taken to foster the economic interests of the city. The regulation of the Danube, mentioned above, the conversion of the entire Danube Canal into a harbour, the construction of the navigable canal Danube–March–Oder—all gave a new impetus to the trade of Vienna. The fast-growing activity of the port of Trieste and the new and shorter railway line constructed between it and Vienna also contribute to the same effect. Vienna carries on an extensive trade in corn, flour, cattle, wine, sugar and a large variety of manufactured articles. Besides the Danube it is served by an extensive net of railways, which radiate from here to every part of the empire.

The staple productions are machinery, railway engines and carriages, steel, tin and bronze wares, pottery, bent and carved wood furniture, textiles and chemicals. In the number and variety of its leather and other fancy goods Vienna rivals Paris, and is also renowned for its manufacture of jewelry and articles of precious metals, objets d'art, musical instruments, physical chemicals and optical instruments, and artistic products generally. Its articles of clothing, silk goods and millinery also enjoy a great reputation for the taste with which they are manufactured. Books, artistic publications, paper and beer are amongst the other principal products. The building trade and its allied trades are also active.

History.—For several centuries Vienna filled an important role as the most advanced bulwark of Western civilization and Christianity against the Turks, for during the whole of the middle ages Hungary practically retained its Asiatic character. The story of Vienna begins in the earliest years of the Christian era, with the seizure of the Celtic settlement of Vindomina by the Romans, who changed its name to Vindobona, and established a fortified camp here to command the Danube and protect the northern frontier of the empire. The fortress grew in importance, and was afterwards made a municipium; and here Marcus Aurelius died in 180. On the decline of the Roman empire Vindobona became the prey of successive barbarian invaders. Attila and his Huns were among the temporary occupants of the place (5th century), and in the following century it came into the possession of the Avars, after which its name disappears from history until towards the close of the 8th century, when Charlemagne expelled the Avars and made the district between the Enns and the Wiener Wald the boundary of his empire. In the time of Otho II. (976) this “East Mark” (Ostmark, Oesterreich, Austria) was granted in fief to the Babenbergers, and in the reign of Frederick Barbarossa (1156) it was advanced to the rank of a duchy. There is no certain record that the site of Vindobona was occupied at the time of the formation of the Ostmark, though many considerations make it probable. It is not likely that the Avars, living in their “ring” encampments, destroyed the Roman municipium; and Bécs, the Hungarian name for Vienna to this day, is susceptible of a Slavonic interpretation only, and would seem to indicate that the site had been occupied in Slavonic times. The frequent mention of “Wiene” in the oldest extant version of the Nibelungenlied points in the same direction. Passing over a doubtful mention of “Vwienni” in the annals of 1030, we find the “civitas” of Vienna mentioned in a document of 1130, and in 1136 it became the capital and residence of Duke Heinrich Jasomirgott. In 1237 Vienna received a charter of freedom from Frederick II., confirmed in 1247. In the time of the crusades Vienna increased so rapidly, in consequence of the traffic that flowed through it, that in the days of Ottacar II. of Bohemia (1251–76), the successor of the Babenbergers, it had attained the dimensions of the present inner town. A new era of power and splendour begins in 1276, when it became the capital of the Habsburg dynasty, after the defeat of Ottacar by Rudolph of Habsburg. From this time on it has shared the fortunes of the house of Austria. In 1477 Vienna was besieged unsuccessfully by the Hungarians, and in 1485 it was taken by Matthew Corvinus. Of more importance were the two sieges by the Turks (1529 and 1683), when the city was saved on the first occasion by the gallant defence of Count Niclas von Salm (1459–1530), and on the second by Rüdiger von Starhemberg (1638–1701), who held out until the arrival of the Poles and Germans under John Sobieski of Poland. The suburbs, however, were destroyed on both occasions. In 1805, and again in 1809, Vienna was for a short time occupied by the French. In 1814–15 it was the meeting-place of the congress which settled the political affairs of Europe after the overthrow of Napoleon. In 1848 the city was for a time in the hands of the revolutionary party, but it was bombarded by the imperial forces and compelled to surrender on 30th October of the same year. Vienna was not occupied by the Prussians in the war of 1866, but the invaders marched to within sight of its towers. In 1873 a great international exhibition took place here.

While Berlin and Budapest have made the most rapid progress of all European cities, having multiplied their population by nine in the period 1800–90, Vienna—even including the extensive annexations of 1892—only increased sevenfold. Many causes conspired to this end, but most of them date from the years 1859, 1866 and 1867. The combined effect of these successive blows, aggravated by the long period of decentralizing policy from Taaffe to Badeni, is still felt in the Kaiserstadt. The gaiety of Vienna had for centuries depended on the brilliancy of its court, recruited from all parts of Europe, including the nobility of the whole empire, and on its musical, light-hearted and contented population. Even before it fell from its high estate as the social centre of the German-speaking world, it had suffered severely by the crushing defeats of 1859 and the consequent exodus of the Austrian nobles. These were held responsible for the misfortunes of the army, and to escape the atmosphere of popular odium retired to their country seats and the provincial capitals. They have never since made Vienna their home to the same extent as before. The change thus begun was confirmed by the exclusion of Austria from the German Confederation and the restoration of her Constitution to Hungary, events which gave an immense impetus to the two rival capitals. Thus within eight years the range of territory from which Vienna drew its former throngs of wealthy pleasure-seeking visitors and more or less permanent inhabitants—Italian, German and Hungarian—was enormously restricted. Since then Vienna has benefited largely by the enlightened efforts of its citizens and the exceptional opportunities afforded by the removal of the fortifications. But a decline of its importance, similar to that within the larger sphere which it influenced prior to 1859, has continued uninterruptedly within the Habsburg dominions up to the present day. Its commercial classes constantly complain of the increasing competition of the provinces, and of the progressive industrial emancipation of Hungary. The efforts of the Hungarians to complete their social and economic, no less than their political, emancipation from Austria and Vienna have been unremittingly pursued. The formal recognition of Budapest as a royal residence and capital in 1892, and the appointment of independent Hungarian court functionaries in November 1893, mark new stages in its progress. It would no longer be correct to speak of Vienna as the capital of the dual monarchy. It merely shares that distinction with Budapest.

—K. von Lutzow and L. Tischler, Wiener Neubauten (6 vols., Wien, 1889–97); M. Bermann, Alt- und Neuwien (2nd ed., Wien, 1903), edited by Schimmer; E. Guglia, Geschichte der Stadt Wien (Wien, 1892); H. Zimmermann, Geschichte der Stadt Wien (2 vols., Wien, 1897–1900); Hickmann, ''Wien im 19. Jahrhundert (Wien, 1903); Wien, 1848–88, published by the Vienna corporation; Statistisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Wien, annually since 1883; Geschichte der Stadt Wien, published by the Vienna Alterthumsverein'' since 1897.

VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814–1815). The fall of Napoleon was only achieved by the creation of a special alliance between Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia. By the Treaty of Chaumont of March 10, 1814, these four powers bound themselves together in a bond which was not to be dissolved when peace was concluded. When Napoleon had been beaten, France conceded to these allies by a secret article of the first Treaty of Paris of May 30, 1814, the disposition of all countries which Napoleon's fall had freed from French suzerainty. This stupendous task was reserved for a general congress, and it was agreed to meet at Vienna. The visit of the allied sovereigns to England and the pressing engagements of the emperor Alexander and Lord Castlercagh delayed the congress until the