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 water-filled interstices, and the percolation will be correspondingly checked. Hence the extreme importance in high dams with clay cores of loading the clay well for some time before water pressure is brought against it. If this is done, the largest possible quantity of clay will be slowly but surely forced into any space, and, being prevented from expanding, it will be unable subsequently to absorb more water. The percolation will then be very small, and the risk of disintegration will be reduced to a minimum. The embankments on either side of the puddle wall are merely to support the puddle and to keep it moist above the ground level when the reservoir is low. They may be quite permeable, but to prevent undue settlement and distortion they must, like the puddle, be well consolidated. In order to prevent a tendency to slip, due to sudden and partial changes of saturation, the outer embankment should always be permeable, and well drained at the base except close to the puddle. The less permeable materials should be confined to the inner parts of the embankments; this is especially important in the case of the inner embankment in order that, when the water level falls, they may remain moist without becoming liable to slip. The inner slope should be protected from the action of waves by so-called “hand-pitching,” consisting of roughly squared stonework, bedded upon a layer of broken stone to prevent local disturbance of the embankment by action of the water between the joints of the larger stones.

In mountain valleys, rock or shale, commonly the most impermeable materials met with in such positions, are sometimes not reached till considerable depths are attained. There are several cases in Great Britain where it has been necessary to carry down the puddle trench to about 200 ft. below the surface of the ground vertically above those parts. The highest dams of this class in the British islands impound water to a level of about 110 ft. above the bottom of the valley. Such great works have generally been well constructed, and there are many which after fifty years of use are perfectly sound and water-tight, and afford no evidence of deterioration. On the other hand, the partial or total failure of smaller dams of this description, to retain the reservoir water, has been much more common in the past than is generally supposed. Throughout Great Britain there are still many reservoirs, with earthen dams, which cannot safely be filled; and others which, after remaining for years in this condition, have been repaired. From such cases and their successful repair valuable experience of the causes of failure may be derived.

Most of these causes are perfectly well understood by experienced engineers, but instances of malconstruction of recent date are still met with. A few such cases will now be mentioned. The base of a puddle trench is often found to have been placed

upon rock, perfectly sound in itself, but having joints which are not impermeable. The loss of water by leakage through such joints or fissures below the puddle wall may or may not be a serious matter in itself; but if at any point there is sufficient movement of water across the base of the trench to produce the slightest erosion of the clay above it, that movement almost invariably increases. The finer particles of clay in the line of the joint are washed away, while the sandy particles, which nearly all natural clays contain, remain behind and form a constantly deepening porous vein of sand crossing the base of the puddle. EB1911 Water Supply, Earth Embankment.jpg 7.—Earth Embankment, with stone toe and concrete trench. Percolation through this sand is thus added to the original leakage. Having passed through the puddle core the leaking water sometimes rises to the surface of the ground, producing a visibly turbid spring. As erosion proceeds, the contraction of the space from which the clay is washed continues, chiefly by the sinking down of the clay above

the sand. Thus the permeable vein grows vertically rather than horizontally, and ultimately assumes the form of a thin vertical sheet traversing the puddle wall, often diagonally in plan, and having a thickness which has varied in different cases from a few inches to a couple of feet or more, of almost clean sand rising to an observed height of 30 or 40 ft., and only arrested in its upward growth by the necessary lowering of the reservoir water to avoid serious danger. The settlement of the plastic clay above the eroded portion soon produces a surface depression at the top of the embankment over or nearly over the leakage, and thus sometimes gives the first warning of impending danger. It is not always possible to prevent any leakage whatever through the strata below the bottom or beyond the ends of the trench, but it is always possible to render such leakage entirely harmless to the work above it, and to carry the water by relief-pipes to visible points at the lower toe of the dam. Wherever the base of a puddle wall cannot be worked into a continuous bed of clay or shale, or tied into a groove cut in sound rock free from water-bearing fissures, the safest course is to base it on an artificial material at once impermeable and incapable of erosion, interposed between the rock and the puddled clay. Water-tight concrete is a suitable material for the purpose; it need not be made so thick as the puddle core, and is therefore sometimes used with considerable advantage in lieu of the puddle for the whole depth below ground. In fig. 7 a case is shown to be so treated. Obviously, the junction between the puddle and the concrete might have been made at any lower level. EB1911 Water Supply, Leakage.jpg 8.—Leakage due to improperly formed discharge culvert through puddle wall of reservoir. However well the work may be done, the lower part of a mass of puddled clay invariably settles into a denser mass when weighted with the clay above. If, therefore, one part is held up, by unyielding rock for example, while an

adjoining part has no support but the clay beneath it, a fracture—not unlike a geological fault—must result. Fig. 8 is a part longitudinal section through the puddle wall of an earthen embankment. The puddle wall is crossed by a pedestal of concrete carrying the brick discharge culvert. The puddle at a was originally held up by the flat head of this pedestal; not so the puddle at b, which under the superincumbent weight settled down and produced the fault bc. accompanied with a shearing or tangential strain or, less probably, with actual fracture in the direction bd. Serious leakage at once began between c and b and washed out the clay, particle by particle, but did not wash out the sand associated with it, which remained