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 of the main well in depth or diameter, or by boreholes or adits. No rule as to the adoption of any one of these courses can be laid down, nor is it possible, without examination of each particular case, to decide whether it is better to attempt to increase the yield of the well or to construct an additional well some distance away. By lowering the head of water in any well which draws its supply from porous rock, the yield is always temporarily increased. Every well has its own particular level of water while steady pumping at a given rate is going on, and if that level is lowered by harder pumping, it may take months, or even years, for the water in the interstices of the rock to accommodate itself to the new conditions; but the permanent yield after such lowering will always be less than the quantity capable of being pumped shortly after the change. We have hitherto supposed the pumps for drawing the water to have been placed in the well at such a level as to be accessible, while the

suction pipe only is below water. Pumps, however, may be (and and have been) placed deep down in boreholes, so that water may be pumped from much greater depths. By this means the head of pressure in the boreholes tending to hold the water back in the rock is reduced, and the supply consequently increased; but when the cost of maintenance is included, the increased supply from the adoption of this method rarely justifies expectations. When the water has been drawn down by pumping to a lower level its passage through the sandstone or chalk in the neighbourhood of the borehole is further resisted by the smaller length of borehole below the water; and there are many instances in which repeated lowering and increased pumping, both from wells and boreholes, have had the result of reducing the water available, after a few years, nearly to the original quantity. One other method—the

use of the so-called “air-lift”—should be mentioned. This ingenious device originated in America. The object attained by the air-lift is precisely the same as that attained by putting a pump some distance down a borehole; but instead of the head being reduced, by means of the pump, it is reduced by mixing the water with air. A pipe is passed down the borehole to the desired depth, and connected with air-compressors at the surface. The compressors being set to work, the air is caused to issue from the lower end of the pipe and to mix in fine bubbles with the rising column of water, sometimes several hundred feet in height. The weight of the column of water, or rather of water and air mixed, is thus greatly reduced. The method will therefore always increase the yield for the time, and it may do so permanently, though to a very much smaller extent than at first; but its economy must always be less than that of direct pumping.

In considering the principles of well supplies it is important to bear the following facts in mind. The crust of the earth, so far as it is permeable and above the sea-level, receives from rainfall its supply of fresh water. That supply, so far as it is not evaporated or absorbed by vegetation, passes away by the streams or rivers, or sinks into the ground. If the strata were uniformly porous the water would lie in the rock at different depths below the surface according to the previous quantity and distribution of the rainfall. It would slowly, but constantly, percolate downwards and towards the sea, and would ooze out at or below the sea-level, rarely regaining the earth’s surface earlier except in deep valleys. Precisely the same thing happens in the actual crust of the earth, except that, in the formations usually met with, the strata are so irregularly permeable that no such uniform percolation occurs, and most of the water, instead of oozing out near the sea-level, meets with obstructions which cause it to issue, sometimes below the sea-level and sometimes above it, in the form of concentrated springs. After prolonged and heavy rainfall the upper boundary of the sub-soil water is, except in high ground, nearly coincident with the surface. After prolonged droughts it still retains more or less the same figure as the surface, but at lower depths and always with less pronounced differences of level.

Sedimentary rocks, formed below the sea or salt lagoons, must originally have contained salt water in their interstices.

On the upheaval of such rocks above the sea-level, fresh water from rainfall began to flow over their exposed surfaces, and, so far as the strata were permeable, to lie in their

interstices upon the salt water. The weight of the original salt water above the sea-level, and of the fresh water so superimposed upon it, caused an overflow towards the sea. A hill, as it were, of fresh water rested in the interstices of the rock upon the salt water, and continuing to press downwards, forced out the salt water even below the level of the sea. Subject to the rock being porous this process would be continued until the greater column of the lighter fresh water balanced the smaller head of sea water. It would conceivably take but a small fraction of the period that has in most cases elapsed since such upheavals occurred for the salt water to be thus displaced by fresh water, and for the condition to be attained as regards saturation with fresh water, in which with few exceptions we now find the porous portions of the earth’s crust wherever the rainfall exceeds the evaporation. There are cases, however, as in the valley of the Jordan, where the ground is actually below the sea-level, and where, as the total evaporation is equal to or exceeds the rainfall, the lake surfaces also are below the sea-level. Thus, if there is any percolation between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea, it must be towards the latter. There are cases also where sedimentary rocks, formed below the sea or salt lagoons, are almost impermeable: thus the salt deposited in parts of the Upper Keuper of the New Red Sandstone, is protected by the red marls of the formation, and has never been washed out. It is now worked as an important industry in Cheshire.

Perhaps the most instructive cases of nearly uniform percolation in nature are those which occur in some islands or peninsulas formed wholly of sea sand. Here water is maintained above the sea-level by the annual rainfall, and may be drawn off by wells or borings. On such an island,

in the centre of which a borehole is put down, brackish water may be reached far below the sea-level; the salt water forming a saucer, as it were, in which the fresh water lies. Such a salt-water saucer of fresh water is maintained full to overflowing by the rainfall, and owing to the frictional resistance of the sand and to capillary action and the fact that a given column of fresh water is balanced by a shorter column of sea water, the fresh water never sinks to the mean sea-level unless artificially abstracted.

Although such uniformly permeable sand is rarely met with in great masses, it is useful to consider in greater detail so simple a case. Let the irregular thick line in fig. 5 be the section of a circular island a mile and a quarter in diameter, of uniformly permeable sand. The mean sea-level is shown by the horizontal line aa, dotted where it passes through the land, and the natural mean level of saturation bb, above the sea-level, by a curved dot and dash line. The water, contained in the interstices of the sand above the mean sea-level, would (except in so far as a film, coating the sand particles, is held up by capillary attraction) gradually sink to the sea-level if there were no rainfall. The resistance to its passage through the sand is, however, sufficiently great to prevent this from occurring while percolation of annual rainfall takes place.

Hence we may suppose that a condition has been attained in which the denser salt water below and around the saucer CC (greatly exaggerated in vertical scale) balances the less dense, but deeper