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Rh a declining phase of vulcanism. Sir Archibald Geikie, who has specially studied the subject of fissure eruptions, regards the Tertiary basaltic plateaus of N. E. Ireland and the Inner Hebrides as outflows from fissures, which may be represented by the gigantic system of dykes that form so marked a feature in the geological structure of the northern part of Britain and Ireland. These dykes extend over an area of something like 40,000 sq. m., while the outflows form an aggregate of about 3000 ft. in thickness. In parts of Nevada, Idaho, Oregon and Washington, sheets of late Tertiary basalt from fissure eruptions occupy an area of about 200,000 sq. m., and constitute a pile at least 2000 ft. thick. In India the “Deccan traps” represent enormous masses of volcanic matter, probably of like origin but of Cretaceous date, whilst South Africa furnishes other examples of similar outflows. Professor J. W. Gregory recognized in the Kapte plains of East Africa evidence of a type of vulcanism, which he distinguished as that of “plateau eruptions.” According to him a number of vents opened at the points of intersection of lines of weakness in a high plateau, giving rise to many small cones, and the simultaneous flows of lava from these cones united to form a far-spreading sheet.

Extrusive and Intrusive Magmas.—When the molten magma in the interior of the earth makes its way upwards and flows forth superficially as a stream of lava, the product is described as extrusive, effusive, effluent or eruptive; but if, failing to reach the surface, the magma solidifies in a fissure or other subterranean cavity, it is said to be intrusive or irruptive. Rocks of the former group only are sometimes recognized as strictly “volcanic,” but the term is conveniently extended, at least in certain cases, to igneous rocks of the latter type, including therefore certain hypabyssal and even plutonic rocks.

When the intrusive magma has been forced into narrow irregular crevices it forms “veins,” which may exhibit complex ramifications, especially marked in some acid rocks; but when injected into a regularly shaped fissure, more or less parallel-sided, and cutting across the planes of bedding, it forms a wall-like mass of rock termed a “dyke.” Most dykes are approximately vertical, or at least highly inclined in position. The inclination of a dyke to a vertical plane is termed its “hade.” In a cinder-cone, the lava as it rises may force its way into cracks, formed by pressure of the magma and tension of the vapours, and will thus form a system of veins and dykes, often radiating from the volcanic axis and strengthening the structure by binding the loose materials together. Thus, in the Valle del Bove, a huge cavity on the east side of Etna, the walls exhibit numerous vertical dykes, which by their hardness stand out as rocky ribs, forming a marked feature in the scenery of the valley. In a similar way dykes traverse the walls of the old crater of Monte Somma at Vesuvius. Exceptionally a dyke may be hollow, the lava having solidified as a crust at the margin of the fissure but having escaped from the interior while still liquid.

When molten matter is thrust between beds of tuff or between successive lava-flows or even ordinary sedimentary strata, it forms an intrusive sheet of volcanic rock known as a “sill.” A sill may sometimes be traced to its connexion with a dyke, which represents the channel up which the lava rose, but instead of reaching the surface the fluid found an easier path between the strata or perhaps along a horizontal rent. Although a dyke may represent a conduit for the ascent of lava which has flowed out superficially, yet if the lava has been removed at the surface by denudation the dyke terminates abruptly, so that its function as the former feeder of a lava-current is not evident. In other cases a dyke may end bluntly because the crack which it occupies never reached the surface.

Lava which has insinuated itself between planes of stratification may, instead of spreading out as a sheet or sill, accumulate locally as a lenticular mass, known as a laccolith or  (q.v.). Such a mass, in many cases rather mushroom-shaped, may force the superincumbent rocks upwards as a dome, and though at first concealed may be ultimately exposed by removal of the overlying burden by erosion. The term phacolite was introduced by A. Harker to denote a meniscus-shaped mass of lava intruded in folded strata, along a crest or a trough. The bysmalith of Professor Iddings is a laccolith of rather plug-like shape, with a faulted roof. An intrusive mass quite irregular in shape has been termed by R. A. Daly a chonolith (Gr., a mould), whilst an intrusion of very great size and ill-defined form is sometimes described as a bathylith or batholite.

Structural Peculiarities in Lava.—Many of the structures exhibited by lava are due to the conditions under which solidification has been effected. A dyke, for example, may be vitreous at the margin where it has been rapidly chilled by contact with the walls of the fissure into which it was injected, whilst the main body may be lithoidal or crystalline: hence a basalt dyke will sometimes have a selvage formed of the basaltic glass known as tachylyte. A similar glass may form a thin crust on certain lava-flows. In a homogeneous vitreous lava, contraction on solidification may develop curved fissures, well seen in the delicate “perlitic” cracks of certain obsidians, indicating a tendency to assume a globular structure. This structure becomes very distinct by the development of “spherulites,” or globular masses with a radiating fibrous structure, sometimes well seen in devitrified glass. Occasionally the spherulitic bodies in lava are hollow, when they are known as

lithophyses, of which excellent examples occur at Obsidian Cliff in the Yellowstone National Park, as described by Professor Iddings. Globular structure on a large scale is sometimes displayed by lavas, especially those of basic type, such as the basalt of Aci Castello in Sicily, which was probably formed, according to Professor Gaetano Platania, by flow of the lava into submarine silt, relics of which still occur between the spheroids. Ellipsoidal or pillow-shaped masses are not infrequently developed in ancient lava-flows, and Sir A. Geikie has suggested the term “pillow-structure” for such formations. Dr T. Anderson has observed them in the recent lavas of Savaii.

Joints, or cracks formed by shrinkage on solidification, may divide a sheet of lava into columns, as familiarly seen in basalt, where the rock often consists of a close mass of regular polygonal prisms, mostly hexagonal. Each prism is divided at intervals by transverse joints, more or less curved, so that the portions are united by a slight ball-and-socket articulation. As the long axes of the columns lie at right angles to the cooling surface they are vertical in a horizontal sheet of lava, horizontal in a vertical dyke, and inclined or curved in other cases. It sometimes happens that in a basaltic dyke the formation of the prisms, having started from the opposite walls as chilling surfaces, has not been completed; and hence the prisms fail to meet in the middle. A spheroidal structure is often developed in basalt columns by weathering, the rock exfoliating in spherical shells, rather like the skins of an onion: such a structure is characteristically shown at the Käsekellar, known also as the Elfen Grotto, at Bertrich, near Alf on the Mosel, where the pillars of the lava are broken into short segments which suggest by their flattened globular shape a pile of Dutch cheeses. Although prismatic jointing, or columnar structure, is most common in basalt, it occurs also in other volcanic rocks. Fine columns of obsidian, for instance, are seen at Obsidian Cliff in the Yellowstone Park, where the pillars may be 50 ft. or more in height. Such an occurrence, however, is exceptional.

Vitreous lavas often show fluxion structure in the form of streaks, bands or trains of incipient crystals, indicating the flow of the mass when viscous. The character of this structure is related to the viscosity of the lava. Those structural peculiarities which depend mainly on the presence of vapour, such as vesiculation, have been already noticed, and the porphyritic structure has likewise been described.

Considering how large a proportion of the face of the earth is covered by the sea, it seems likely that volcanic eruptions must frequently occur on the ocean-floor. When, as occasionally though not often happens, the effects of a submarine eruption are observed during the disturbance, it is seen that the surface of the sea is violently agitated, with copious discharge of steam, the water passes into a state of ebullition, perhaps throwing up huge fountains; shoals of dead fishes, with volcanic cinders, bombs and fragments of pumice, float around the centre of eruption, and ultimately a little island may appear above sea-level. This new land is the peak of a volcanic cone which is based on the sea-floor, and if in deep water the submarine mountain must evidently be of great magnitude. Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, described by Dr C. W. Andrews, appears to be a volcanic mountain, with Tertiary limestones, standing in water more than 14,000 ft. deep. Many volcanic islands, such as those abundantly scattered over the Pacific, must have started as submarine volcanoes which reached the surface either by continued upward growth or by upheaval of the sea-bottom. Etna began its long geological history by submarine eruptions in a bay of the Mediterranean, and Vesuvius in like manner represents what was originally a volcano on the sea-floor. As the ejectamenta from a submarine vent accumulate on the sea-bottom they become intermingled with relics of marine organisms, and thus form fossiliferous volcanic tuffs. By the distribution of the ashes over the sea-floor, through the agency of waves and currents, these tuffs may pass insensibly into submarine deposits of normal sedimentary type.

One of the best examples of a submarine eruption resulting in the formation of a temporary island occurred in 1831 in the Mediterranean between Sicily and the coast of Africa, where the water was known to have previously had a depth of 100 fathoms. After the usual manifestations of volcanic activity an accumulation of black cinders and ashes formed an island which reached at one point a height of 200 ft., so that the pile of erupted matter had a thickness of about 800 ft. The new island, which was studied by Constant Prévost became known in England as Graham's Island, in France as Île Julie and in Italy by various names as Isola Ferdinandea. Being merely a loose pile of scoriae, it rapidly suffered erosion by the sea, and in about three months was reduced to a shoal called Graham's