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Rh When a stream of lava flows into the sea it no doubt immediately generates a prodigious volume of steam; but this is only a temporary phenomenon, for the lava rapidly becomes chilled by the cold water, with formation of a superficial solid layer, which by its low thermal conductivity allows the internal mass to cool slowly and quietly. In the great eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 the sea-water gained occasional access to the molten lava, and by its cooling effect checked the escape of vapour, thus temporarily diminishing the volcanic activity. But Judd compares this action to that of fastening down the safety-valve of a steam-boiler. The tension of the elastic fluids being increased by this repression would give rise subsequently to an explosion of greater violence; and hence the short violent paroxysms characteristic of the Krakatoa eruption were due to what he calls a “check and rally” of the subterranean forces. The action in the volcanic conduit has, indeed, been compared with that of a geyser.

The downward passage of water through fissures must be confined to the upper portion of the earth's crust known as the “zone of fracture,” for it is there only that open channels can exist. Water might also percolate through the pores of the rocks, but even the pores are closed at great depths. It was shown many years ago by G. A. Daubrée that water could pass to a limited extent through a heated rock against the pressure of steam in the opposite direction. According to S. Arrhenius, water may pass inwards through the sea-bottom by osmotic pressure.

As the melting points of various silicates are lowered by admixture with water, it appears that the access of surface-waters to heated rocks must promote their fusibility. Judd has suggested that the proximity of large bodies of water may be favourable to volcanic manifestations, because the hydrated rocks become readily melted by internal heat and thus yield a supply of lava.

Whilst some of the water-vapour exhaled from a volcano is undoubtedly derived from superficial sources, notably in such insular volcanoes as Stromboli, the opinion has of late years been gaining ground, through the teaching of Professor E. Suess and others, that the volcanic water must be largely referred to a deep-seated subterranean origin—that it is, in a word, “hypogene” or magmatic rather than meteoric. It is held that the magma as it rises through the volcanic conduit brings up much water-vapour and other gaseous matters derived from original sources, perhaps a relic of what was present in the earth in its molten condition, having possibly been absorbed from a dense primordial atmosphere, or, as suggested by Professor T. C. Chamberlin, entrapped by the globe during its formation by accretion of planetesimal matter.

Water brought from magmatic depths to the surface, and appearing there for the first time, has been termed “juvenile,” and it has been assumed that such water may be seen in hot springs like those at Carlsbad. Professor J. W. Gregory has suggested that certain springs in the interior of Australia may derive part of their supply from juvenile or plutonic waters.

According to A. Gautier, the origin of volcanic water may be found in the oxidation of hydrogen, developed from masses of crystalline rock, which by subsidence have been subjected to the action of subterranean heat.

Volcanic Vapours.—It seems not unlikely that the vapours and gases exist in the volcanic magma in much the same way that they can exist in molten metal. It is a familiar fact that certain metals when melted can absorb large volumes of gases without entering into chemical combination with them. Molten silver, for example, is capable of absorbing from the atmosphere more than twenty times its volume of oxygen, which it expels on solidification, thus producing what is called the “spitting of silver.” Platinum again can absorb and retain when solid, or occlude, a large volume of hydrogen, that can be expelled by heating the metal in vacuo. In like manner molten rock under pressure can absorb much steam. It appears that many igneous rocks contain gases locked up in their pores, not set free by pulverization, yet capable of expulsion by strong heat. The gases in rocks have been the subject of elaborate study by R. T. Chamberlin, whose results appear in Publication No. 106 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.

Sir W. A. Tilden has found that granite, gabbro, basalt and certain other igneous rocks enclose many times their volume of gases, chiefly hydrogen and carbon dioxide, with carbon monoxide, methane and nitrogen. Thus, the basalt of Antrim in Ireland, which is a Tertiary lava, yielded eight times its volume of gas having the following percentage composition: hydrogen 36.15, carbon dioxide 32.08, carbon monoxide 20.08, methane 10, nitrogen 1.61. No doubt some of the gases evolved on heating rocks may be generated by reactions during the experiment, as shown by M. W. Travers, and also by Armand Gautier. It has been pointed out by Gautier that the gas exhaled from Mont Pelé during the eruption of 1902 had practically the same composition as that which he obtained on heating granite and certain other rocks. According to this

authority a cubic kilometre of granite heated to redness would yield not less than 26,000,000 tons of water-vapour, besides other gases. If then a mass of granite in the earth's crust were subject to a great local accession of heat it might evolve vast volumes of gaseous matter, capable of producing an eruption of explosive type. Judd found that the little balls of Siberian obsidian called marekanite threw off, when strongly heated, clouds of finely divided particles formed by rupture of the distended mass through the escape of vapour. Pitchstone when ignited loses in some cases as much as 10% of its weight, due to expulsion of water.

Much of the steam and other vapour brought up from below by the lava may be evolved on mere exposure to the air, and hence a stream freshly extruded is generally beclouded with more or less vapour. Gaseous bubbles in the body of the lava render it vesicular, especially in the upper part of a stream, where the pressure is relieved, and the vesicles by the onward flow of the lava tend to become elongated in the direction of movement. Vesiculation, being naturally resisted by cohesion, is not common in very viscid lavas of acid type, nor is it to be expected where the lava has been subject to great pressure, but it is seen to perfection in surface-flows of liquid lavas of basaltic character. A vesicular structure may sometimes be seen even in dykes, but the cavities are usually rounded rather than elongated, and are often arranged in bands parallel to the walls of the dyke. A very small proportion of water in a lava suffices to produce vesiculation. Secondary minerals developed in a cellular lava may be deposited in the steam-holes, thus producing an amygdaloidal rock.

After the surface of a lava-stream has become crusted over, vapour may still be evolved in the interior of the mass, and in seeking release may elevate or even pierce the crust. Small cones may thus be thrown up on a lava-flow, and when vapour escapes from terminal or lateral orifices they are known as “spiracles.” The steam may issue with sufficient projectile force to toss up the lava in little fountains. When the lava is very liquid, as in the Hawaiian volcanoes, it may after projection from the blow-hole fall back in drops and plastic clots, which on consolidation form, by their union, small cones.

Vapour-vents on lava are often known as s (q.v.). The character of the gaseous exhalations varies with the temperature, and the following classification was suggested by C. Sainte-Claire Deville: (1) Dry or white fumaroles having a temperature above 500° C. and evolving compounds of chlorine, and perhaps fluorine. (2) Acid fumaroles, exhaling much steam, with hydrochloric acid and sulphur dioxide. (3) Alkaline fumaroles, at a temperature of about 100°, with much steam and ammonium chloride and some sulphuretted hydrogen. (4) Cold fumaroles, below 100°, with aqueous vapour, carbon dioxide and sulphuretted hydrogen. (5) Mofettes, indicating the expiring phase of vulcanism. A similar sequence of emanations, following progressive cooling of the lava, has been noted by other observers. During an eruption, the gaseous products may vary considerably. Johnston-Lavis found at Vesuvius that the vapour which first escaped from the boiling lava contained much sulphurous acid, and that hydrochloric acid and other chlorides appeared later.

If the vapours exhaled from volcanoes were derived originally from superficial sources, the lava would, of course, merely return to the surface of the earth what it had directly or indirectly absorbed. But if, as is now rather generally believed, much if not most of the volcanic vapour is derived from original subterranean sources, it must form a direct contribution from the interior of the earth to the atmosphere and hydrosphere, and consequently becomes of extreme geological interest.

Description of Special Cases and Vapours.—Hydrochloric acid, HCl, escapes abundantly from many vents, often accompanied with the vapours of certain metallic chlorides, and is responsible for much of the acrid effects of volcanic exhalations. To avoid dangerous vapours an active volcano should be ascended on the windward side. Free hydrofluoric acid, HF, has sometimes been detected with the hydrochloric acid among Vesuvian vapours, and silicon fluoride, SiF4, has also been reported. Sulphuretted hydrogen, H2S, is a frequent emanation, and being combustible may contribute to the lambent flames seen in some eruptions. It readily suffers oxidation, giving rise to sulphur dioxide and water. By the interaction of hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide, water and carbon oxysulphide, COS, are formed; whilst by reaction with sulphur dioxide, water and free sulphur are produced, such being no doubt the origin of many deposits of volcanic sulphur. Hydrogen sulphide may be formed by the decomposition of certain metallic sulphides, like that of calcium, in the presence of moisture, as suggested by Anderson and Flett with regard to certain muds at the Soufrière of St Vincent. Sulphurdioxide, SO2, is one of the commonest exhalations, especially at acid fumaroles. It may be detected by its characteristic smell, that of burning brimstone, even when present in very small proportion and in the presence of an excess of hydrochloric acid. By hydration it readily forms sulphurous acid, which maybe further oxidized to sulphuric acid. J. B. Boussingault found free sulphuric acid (with hydrochloric acid) in the water of the Rio Vinagre which issues from the volcano of Puracé in the Andes of Colombia; and it occurs also in certain other volcanic waters. Carbon dioxide, CO2, is generally a product of the later stages of an eruption, and is