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Rh heavy, dark, crystalline minerals, whilst the dust at a distance was excessively fine and perfectly white. According to this observer, the particles tended to fall in the following order: magnetite, pyroxenes, felspar, glass. The finely comminuted material, carried to a great height in the atmosphere, consisted largely of delicate threads and attenuated plates of vitreous matter, in many cases hollow and containing air-bubbles. The greater part of the dust was formed by the mutual attrition of fragments of brittle pumice as they rose and fell in the crater, which thus became a powerful “dust-making mill.” By this trituration of the pumiceous lava, carried on for a space of three months during which the eruption lasted, the quantity of finely pulverized material must have been enormous; yet the amount of ejected matter was probably very much less than that extruded during some other historical eruptions, such as that of Tomboro in Sumbawa, in 1815. The explosions at Krakatoa were, however, exceptionally violent, having been sufficient to project some of the finely pulverized lava to an altitude estimated to have been at least 30 m. It is usually impossible during a great eruption to determine the height of the column of “smoke,” since it hangs over the country as a pall of darkness.

The great black cloud, which was so characteristic a feature in the terrible eruptions in the West Indies in 1902, was formed of steam with sulphur dioxide and other gases, very heavily charged with incandescent sand or dust, forming a dense mixture that in some respects behaved like a liquid. Unlike the Krakatoa dust, which was derived from a vitreous pumice, the solid matter of the black cloud was largely composed of fragments of crystalline minerals. According to Drs Anderson and Flett it is not impossible that on the afternoon of the 17th of May 1902, the solid matter ejected from the Soufrière of St Vincent amounted to several billions of tons, and that some of the dust fell at distances more than 2000 m. east of the centre of eruption.

In Mexico and Central America, under the favourable influence of warmth and moisture, rich soils are rapidly formed by the decomposition of finely divided volcanic ejecta. Vast areas in North America, especially in Nebraska and Kansas, are covered with thick deposits of volcanic dust, partly from recent eruptions but principally from volcanic activity in geologic time. The dust is used in the arts as an abrasive agent.

Lava.—The volcanic cinders, sand, ashes and dust described above are but varied forms of solidified lava. Lava is indeed the most characteristic product of volcanic activity. It consists of mineral matter which is, or has been, in a molten state; but the liquidity is not due to simple dry fusion. The magma, or subterranean molten matter, may be regarded as composed essentially of various silicates, or their constituents, in a state of mutual solution, and heavily charged with certain vapours or gases, principally water-vapour, superheated and under pressure. In consequence of the peculiar constitution of the magma, the order in which minerals separate and solidify from it on cooling does not necessarily correspond with the inverse order of their relative fusibility. The lava differs from the magma before eruption, inasmuch as water and various volatile substances may be expelled on extrusion. The rapid escape of vapour from the lava contributes to the explosive phenomena of an eruption, whilst the rate at which the vapour is disengaged depends largely on the viscosity of the magma.

The lava on its immediate issue from the volcanic vent is probably at a white heat, but the temperature is difficult of determination since the molten matter is usually not easy of approach, by reason of the enshrouding vapour. Determinations of temperature are generally made at a short distance from the exit, when the lava has undergone more or less cooling, or on a small stream from a subordinate vent. A. Bartoli, using a platinum electric resistance pyrometer, found that a stream of lava near a bocca, or orifice of emission, on Etna, in the eruption of 1892, had at a depth of one foot a temperature of 1060° C. In the lavas of Vesuvius and Etna thin wires of silver and of copper have frequently been melted. Probably the lava at the surface of the stream has a temperature of something like 1100° C, but this must not be assumed to be its temperature at the volcanic focus. C. Doelter, in some experiments on the melting-point of lava by means of an electric furnace, found that a lava from Etna softened at from 962° to 970° C. and became fluid at 1010° to 1040°, whilst a Vesuvian lava softened at 1030° to 1060° and acquired fluidity at 1080° to 1090°. These results were obtained at ordinary atmospheric pressure, but it has been assumed that the melting-point of lava at a great depth would, through pressure alone, exceed that obtained in the laboratory. On the other hand the presence of water and of certain volatile fluxes in the magma lowers the fusing-point, and hence the extruded lava from which these have largely escaped may be much less fusible than the original magma.

Determinations of the melting-points of various glasses formed by the fusion of certain igneous rocks have been made by J. A. Douglas, with the meldometer of Professor J. Joly. The results give

temperatures ranging from 1260° C. for rhyolite to 1070° for dolcrite from the Clee Hills in Shropshire. The melting-points of the rocks in a glassy condition as here given are, however, lower than those of the corresponding rocks in a crystalline state.

It should be noted that all determinations of the melting-points of minerals and rocks involving ocular inspection of the physical state of the material are liable to considerable error, and the only accurate method seems to be that of determining the point at which absorption of heat abruptly occurs—the latent heat of fusion. This has been done in the refined investigations by Mr A. L. Day and his colleagues in the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution at Washington.

It is believed that the temperature of lava in the volcanic conduit may be in some cases sufficiently high to fuse the neighbouring rocks, and so melt out a passage through them in its ascent. The wall-rock thus dissolved in the magma will not be without influence on the composition of the lava with which it becomes assimilated.

Many interesting observations are on record with regard to the heating effect of lava on metals and other objects with which it may have come in contact. Thus, after the destruction of Torre del Greco by a current of lava from Vesuvius in 1794, it was found that brass in the houses under the lava had suffered decomposition, the copper having become crystallized; whilst silver had been not only fused but sublimed. This indicates a temperature of upwards of 1000° C. Panes of glass in the windows at Torre del Greco on the same occasion suffered devitrification.

Notwithstanding the high temperature of lava on emission, it cools so rapidly, and the consolidated lava conducts heat so slowly, that vegetable structures may be involved in a lava-flow without being entirely destroyed. A stream of lava on entering a wood, as in the sylvan region on Etna, may burn up the undergrowth but leave many of the larger trees with their trunks merely carbonized. On Vesuvius a lava-flow has been observed to surround trees while the foliage has been apparently uninjured. A vertical trunk of a coniferous tree partially enveloped in Tertiary basalt occurs at Gribon in the Isle of Mull, as described by Sir A. Geikie and others; plant-remains in basalt from the Bo'ness coalfield in Linlithgowshire have been noticed by H. M. Cadell; and attention has been called by B. Hobson to a specimen of scoriaceous basalt, from Mexico, which shows the impression of ears of maize and even relics of the actual grains. In consequence of the slow transmission of heat by solid lava, the crust on the surface of a stream may be crossed with impunity whilst the matter is still glowing at a short distance below. Lichens may indeed grow on lava which remains highly heated in the interior.

The solidified surface of a sheet of lava may be smooth and shining, sometimes quite satiny in sheen, though locally wrinkled and perhaps even ropy or hummocky, the irregularities being mainly due to superficial movement after partial solidification. The “corded lava” has a surface similar to that often seen on blast furnace slag, and is suggestive of a tranquil flow. After a lava stream has become crusted over on cooling, the subjacent lava, still moving in a viscous condition, tends to tear the crust, forming irregular blocks, or clinkers, which are carried forward by the flow and ultimately left in the form of confused heaps, perhaps of considerable magnitude. The front of a stream may present a wall of scoriaceous fragments looking like a huge pile of coke. As the clinkers are carried along, on the surface of the lava, they produce by mutual friction a crunching noise; and the sluggish flow of the lava-stream laden with its burden has been compared with that of a glacier. Since the upper part of the stream moves more rapidly than the lower, which is retarded by cooling in contact with the bed-rock, the superficial clinkers are carried forward and, rolling over the end, may become embedded in the lava as it advances. Scoriae formed on the top of a stream may thus find their way to the base. Rock-fragments or other detrital matter occurring in the path of the lava will be caught up by the flow and become involved in the lower part of the molten mass; whilst the rocks over which the lava travels may suffer more or less alteration by the heat of the stream.

The rapidity of a lava flow is determined partly by the slope of the bed over which it moves and partly by the consistency of the lava, this being dependent on its chemical composition and on the conditions of cooling. In an eruption of Mauna Loa, in Hawaii, in 1855, the lava was estimated to flow at a rate of 40 m. an hour; and at an eruption of Vesuvius in 1805 a velocity of more than 50 m. an hour, at the moment of emission, was recorded. The rapidity of flow is, however, rapidly checked as the stream advances, the retardation being very marked in small flows. Where lava travels down a steep incline there is naturally a great tendency to form a rugged surface, whilst a quiet flow over a flat plane favours smoothness. If the lava meet a precipice it may form a cascade of great beauty, the clinkers rapidly rolling down with a clatter, as described by Sir W. Hamilton in the eruption of Vesuvius in 1771, when the fiery torrent had a perpendicular fall of 50 ft.

In Hawaii the smooth shining lava, often superficially waved and lobed, is known as pahoehoe, whilst the rugged clinker beds are termed aa. These terms are now used in general terminology, having been introduced by American geologists. The fields of aa often contain lava-balls and bombs. It may be said that the