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 Until after the conquest of Greece the Romans do not appear to have known much of veterinary medicine. Varro (116–28 ) may be considered the first Roman writer who deals with

animal medicine in a scientific spirit in his De Re Rustica, in three books, which is largely derived from Greek writers. Celsus is supposed to have written on animal medicine, and Columella (1st century) is credited with having utilized those relating to veterinary science in the sixth and seventh parts of his De Re Rustica, one of the best works of its class of ancient times; it treats not only of medicine and surgery, but also of sanitary measures for the suppression of contagious diseases. From the 3rd century onwards veterinary science had a literature of its own and regular practitioners, especially in the service of the Roman armies (mulomedici, veterinarii). Perhaps the most renowned veterinarian of the Roman empire was Apsyrtus of Bithynia, who in 322 accompanied the expedition of Constantine against the Sarmatians in his professional capacity, and seems to have enjoyed a high and well-deserved reputation in his time. He was a keen observer; he distinguished and described a number of diseases which were badly defined by his predecessors, recognized the contagious nature of glanders, farcy and anthrax, and prescribed isolation for their suppression; he also made interesting observations on accidents and diseases of horses’ limbs, and waged war against certain absurd empirical practices then prevailing in the treatment of disease, indicating rational methods, some of which are still successfully employed in veterinary therapeutics, such as splints for fractures, sutures for wounds, cold water for the reduction of prolapsed vagina, hot baths for tetanus, &c. Not less eminent was Hierocles, the successor of Apsyrtus, whose writings he largely copied, but with improvements and valuable additions, especially in the hygiene and training of horses. Pelagonius, again, was a writer of empirical tendency, and his treatment of disease in general was most irrational. Publius Vegetius (not to be confounded with Flavius Vegetius Renatus, who wrote on the military art) was a popular author of the end of the 5th century, though less distinguished than Apsyrtus, to whom and to Pelagonius he was to a great extent indebted in the preparation of his Mulomedicinia sive Ars Veterinaria. He appears to have been more of a horse-dealer than a veterinary practitioner, and knew next to nothing of anatomy, which seems to have been but little cultivated at that period. He was very superstitious and a believer in the influence of demons and sorcerers; nevertheless, he gives some interesting observations derived from his travels. He had also a good idea of aerial infection, recognized the utility of disinfectants, and describes some operations not referred to by previous writers, such as removal of calculi from the bladder through the rectum, couching for cataract, the extirpation of certain glands, and several serious operations on the horse’s foot. Though inferior to several works written by his predecessors, the Mulomedicina of Vegetius maintained its popularity through many centuries. Of most of the ancient veterinary writers we know little beyond what can be gathered from the citations and extracts in the two great collections of Hippiatrica and Geoponica compiled by order of Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the 10th century.

It is unnecessary to dwell here on the progress of the veterinary art during the middle ages. Towards the close of the medieval period the subject was much cultivated in the cavalry schools of Italy; and Spain also had an organized system of good practitioners in the 15th century, who have left many books still extant. Germany was far behind, and literature on the subject did not exist until the end of the 15th century, when in 1492 there was published anonymously at Augsburg a Pferdearzneibüchlein. In the following century the influence of the Italian writers was becoming manifest, and the works of Fugger and Fayser mark the commencement of a new era. Fayser’s treatises, Von der Gestüterei and Von der Zucht der Kriegs- und Bürger-Pferde (1529-97), are remarkable for originality and good sense. In Great Britain animal medicine was perhaps in a more advanced condition than in Germany, if we accept the evidence of the Ancient Laws and Institutes of Wales (London, 1841); yet it was largely made up of the grossest superstitions. Among the Celts the healer of horse diseases and the shoer were held in high esteem, as among the more civilized nations of Europe, and the court farrier enjoyed special privileges. The earliest known works in English appeared anonymously towards the commencement of the 15th century, viz. Propertees and Medcynes for a Horse and Mascal of Oxen, Horses, Sheepes, Hogges, Dogges. The word “mascal” shows that the latter work was in its origin Italian. There is no doubt that in the 15th century the increasing taste for horses and horsemanship brought Italian riding-masters and farriers into England; and it is recorded that Henry VIII. brought over two of these men who had been trained by Grisone in the famous Neapolitan school. The knowledge so introduced became popularized, and assumed a concrete form in Blundeville’s Foure Chiefest Offices belonging to Horsemanship (1566), which contains many references to horse diseases, and, though mainly a compilation, is yet enriched with original observations. In the 15th century the anatomy of the domesticated animals, formerly almost entirely neglected, began to receive attention. A work on comparative anatomy by Volcher Koyter was issued at Nuremberg in 1573; about the same time a writer in Germany named Copho or Cophon published a book on the anatomy of the pig, in which were many original remarks on the lymphatic vessels; and Jehan Hervard in France produced in 1594 his rather incomplete Hippo-Ostéologie. But by far the most notable work, and one hich maintained its popularity for a century and a half, was that of Carlo Ruini, a senator of Bologna, published in 1598 in that city, and entitled Dell’ Anatomia e dell’ Infirmità del Cavallo, e suoi Remedii. Passing through many editions, and translated into French and German, this book was for the most part original, and a remarkable one for the time in which it was composed, the anatomical portion being especially praiseworthy, English books of the 17th century exhibit a strong tendency towards the improvement of veterinary medicine and surgery, especially as regards the horse. This is even more notable in the writings of the 18th century, among which may be particularized Gibson’s Farrier's New Guide (1719), Method of Dieting Horses (1721) and (best of all) his New Treatise on the Diseases of Horses, besides Braken’s, Burdon’s, Bridge’s and Bartlet’s treatises. Veterinary anatomy was greatly advanced by the Anatomy of an Horse (1683) of Snape, farrier to Charles II., illustrated with copper plates, and by the still more complete and original work of Stubbs, the Anatomy of the Horse (1766), which decidedly marked a new era in this line of study. Of foreign works it may suffice to mention that of Solleysel, Véritable parfait maréschal (1664), which passed through many editions, was translated into several languages, and was borrowed from for more than a century by different writers. Sir W. Hope's Compleat Horseman (1696) is a translation from Solleysel by a pupil.

Modern Schools and Colleges.— The most important era in the history of modern veterinary science commenced with the institution of veterinary schools. France was the first to take the great initiative step in this direction. Buffon had recommended the formation of veterinary schools, but his recommendations were not attended to. Claude Bourgelat (1712–1799), an advocate at Lyons and a talented hippologist, through his influence with Bertin, prime minister under Louis XV., was the first to induce the government to establish a veterinary school and school of equitation at Lyons, in 1761. This school he himself directed for only a few years, during which the great benefits that had resulted from it justified an extension of its teaching to other parts of France. Bourgelat, therefore, founded (1766) at Alfort, near Paris, a second veterinary school, which soon became, and has remained to this day, one of the finest and most advanced veterinary schools in the world. At Lyons he was replaced by the Abbé Rozier, a learned agriculturist, who was killed at the siege of Lyons after a very successful period of school management, during which he had added largely to agricultural and physical knowledge by the publication of his Journal de Physique and Cours d’ Agriculture. Twenty years later the Alfort school added to its teaching staff several distinguished professors whose names still adorn the annals of science, such as Dauberton, who taught rural economy; Vic d’Azyr, who lectured on comparative anatomy; Fourcroy, who undertook instruction in chemistry; and Gilbert, one of its most brilliant pupils, who had veterinary medicine and surgery for his department. The last-named was also a distinguished agriculturist and published many important treatises on agricultural as well as veterinary subjects. The position he had acquired, added to his profound and varied knowledge, made him most useful to France during the period of the Revolution. It is chiefly to him that it is indebted for the celebrated Rambouillet flock of Merino sheep, for the conservation of the Tuileries and Versailles parks, and for the creation of the fine experimental agricultural establishment organized in the ancient domain of Sceaux. The Alfort school speedily became the nursery of veterinary science, and the source whence all similar institutions obtained their first teachers and their guidance. A third government school was founded in 1825 at Toulouse; and these three schools have produced thousands of thoroughly educated veterinary surgeons and many professors of high scientific repute, among whom may be named Bouley, Chauveau, Colin, Toussaint, St Cyr, Goubaux, Arloing, Galtier, Nocard, Trasbot, Neumann, Cadiot and Leclainche. The opening of the Alfort school was followed by the establishment of national schools in Italy (Turin, 1769), Denmark (Copenhagen, 1773), Austria (Vienna, 1775), Saxony (Dresden, 1776), Prussia (Hanover, 1778; Berlin, 1790), Bavaria (Munich, 1790), Hungary (Budapest, 1787) and Spain (Madrid, 1793); and soon government veterinary schools were founded in nearly every European country, except Great Britain and Greece, mostly on a munificent scale. Probably all, but especially those of France and Germany, were established as much with a view to training veterinary surgeons for the army as for the requirements of civil life. In 1907 France possessed three national veterinary schools, Germany had six, Russia four (Kharkov, Dorpat, Kazan and Warsaw), Italy six, Spain five, Austria-Hungary three (Vienna, Budapest and Lemberg), Switzerland two (Zürich and Bern), Sweden two (Skara and Stockholm), Denmark, Holland, Belgium and Portugal one each. In 1849 a government veterinary