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Rh indifferent to the prospect that the proclamation of papal infallibility would invest the dicta of the medieval popes, as to the relationship between Church and State, with the character of inspired doctrinal decisions, and confer dogmatic authority on the principles enunciated in the Syllabus of Pius IX. Nor was the fear of these and similar consequences diminished by the proceedings of the council itself. The result was that on the 30th of July 1870, Austria annulled the Concordat arranged with the Curia in 1855. In Prussia the so-called Kulturkampf broke out immediately afterwards, and in France the synod so accentuated the power of ultramontanism, that, in late years, the republic has taken effectual steps to curb it by revoking the Concordat of 1801 and completely separating the Church from the State.

The antecedent history of the council was long; its subsequent history is a chapter which has not yet been closed. That the dogma was carefully prepared beforehand, mainly by the Society of Jesus, is a demonstrable and demonstrated fact, notwithstanding the denials emanating from writers belonging to the society.

The general position of Roman Catholicism was consolidated by the Vatican Council in more respects than one; for not only did it promote the centralization of government in Rome, but the process of unification soon made further progress, and the attempts to control the intellectual and spiritual life of the Church have now assumed dimensions which, a few decades ago, would have been regarded as anachronistic. On the other hand, however, a counter-movement can be traced in all countries with a predominant Catholic population, &mdash; the so-called Reformed Catholicism, which may wear a different aspect in different districts and different strata of society, but is everywhere distinguished by the same fundamental aspiration towards increased liberty. Thus the victory gained by ultramontane influences within the Church &mdash; a victory for which the Vaticanum was largely responsible &mdash; closes one period of development, but a second has already begun, the keynote of which is the search for a modus vivendi between this Vatican system and the Catholicism which is rooted in the intellectual life of the modern world.

(C. M.)

VATKE, JOHANN KARL WILHELM (1806-1882), German Protestant theologian, was born at Behndorf, near Magdeburg, on the 14th of March 1806. After acting as Privatdozent in Berlin, he was appointed in 1837 professor extraordinarius. Vatke was one of the founders of the newer Hexateuch criticism. In the same year in which David Strauss published his Life of Jesus, Vatke issued his book, Die Religion des Alten Testaments nach den kanonischen Büchern entwickelt, which contained

the seeds of a revolution in the ideas held about the Old Testament. Since, however, his book was too philosophical to be popular, the author's theories were practically unnoticed for a generation, and the new ideas are now associated especially with the names of A. Kuenen and J. Wellhausen (qq.v.). He died on the 18th of April 1882.

VATTEL, EMERIC DE (1714-1767) Swiss jurist, the son of a Protestant minister, was born at Couvet, in the principality of Neuchâtel, on the 25th of April 1714. He studied at Basel and Geneva. During his early years his favourite pursuit was philosophy; and, having carefully examined the works of G. W. Leibnitz and C. Wolff, he published in 1741 a defence of Leibnitz's system against J. P. de Crousaz. In the same year Vattel, who was born a subject of the king of Prussia, repaired to Berlin in the hope of obtaining some public employment from Frederick II., but was disappointed in his expectation. Two years later he proceeded to Dresden, where he experienced a very favourable reception from Count Brühl, the minister of Saxony. In 1746 he obtained from the elector, Augustus III., the title of councillor of embassy, accompanied with a pension, and was sent to Bern in the capacity of the elector's minister. His diplomatic functions did not occupy his whole time, and much of his leisure was devoted to literature and jurisprudence. Among other works he published Loisirs philosophiques (1747) and Mélanges de littérature, de morale, et de politique (1757). But his reputation chiefly rests on his Droit des gens, ou Principes de la loi naturelle appliqués à la conduite et aux affaires des nations et des souverains (Neuchâtel, 1758). During the same year he was recalled from Switzerland, to be employed in the cabinet of Dresden, and was soon afterwards honoured with the title of privy councillor. His labours now became so intense as to exhaust his strength, and his health broke down. After a period of rest he returned to Dresden in 1766; but his renewed exertions soon produced a relapse, and he made another excursion to Neuchâtel, where he died on the 28th of December 1767. His last work was entitled Questions de droit naturel, ou Observations sur le traité du droit de la nature, par Wolff (Bern, 1762).

VAUBAN, SÉBASTIEN LE PRESTRE DE (1633-1707), marshal of France, the most celebrated of military engineers (see ), was born at Saint-Léger-Vauban (Yonne). At the age of ten he was left an orphan in very poor circumstances, and his boyhood and youth were spent amongst the peasantry of his native place. A fortunate event brought him under the care of the Carmelite prior of Sémur, who undertook his education, and the grounding in mathematics, science and geometry which he thus received was of the highest value in his subsequent career. At the age of seventeen Vauban joined the regiment of Condé in the war of the Fronde. His gallant conduct won him within a year the offer of a commission, which he declined on account of poverty. Condé then employed him to assist in the fortification of Clermont-en-Argonne. Soon afterwards he was taken prisoner by the royal troops; but though a rebel he was well treated, and the kindness of Mazarin converted the young engineer into a devoted servant of the king. He was employed in the siege of St Ménéhould (which he had helped to storm as a Frondeur) and won a lieutenancy in the regiment of Burgundy, and at Stenay he was twice wounded. Soon afterwards he besieged and took his own first fortress, Clermont; and in May 1655 he received his commission as an ingénieur du roi, having served his apprenticeship under the Chevalier de Clerville, one of the foremost engineers